the Last Frontier

тж Great Land, Land of the Midnight Sun

см тж Frontier

last¹ [lɑ:st]

1 adjective

(a) (with dates, times of day) dernier;

∎ last Monday lundi dernier;

∎ last week/year la semaine/l'année dernière;

∎ last July en juillet dernier, l'année dernière au mois de juillet;

∎ last night (at night) cette nuit, la nuit dernière; (in the evening) hier soir

(b) (final) dernier;

∎ the last train le dernier train;

∎ the last guest to arrive le dernier des invités à arriver;

∎ the last syllable but one l'avant-dernière syllabe;

∎ that was the last time I saw him c'était la dernière fois que je le voyais;

∎ that's the last time I do HIM a favour c'est la dernière fois que je lui rends service;

∎ it's your last chance c'est votre dernière chance;

∎ at the last minute or moment à la dernière minute, au dernier moment;

∎ it's our last day here c'est notre dernière journée ici;

∎ I'm down to my last cigarette il ne me reste plus qu'une seule cigarette;

∎ they were down to their last few bullets il ne leur restait pratiquement plus de munitions;

∎ one of the last few survivors un des tout derniers survivants;

∎ the last two pages les deux dernières pages;

∎ I'll sack every last one of them! je vais tous les virer!;

∎ every last scrap of bread had been eaten on avait mangé jusqu'à la dernière miette;

∎ she used up every last ounce of energy elle a utilisé tout ce qui lui restait d'énergie;

∎ to the last detail dans les moindres détails;

∎ American the movie was her last hurrah c'est avec ce film qu'elle a fait ses adieux au cinéma;

∎ the concert was her last hurrah c'est avec ce concert qu'elle a fait ses adieux au public;

∎ they were prepared to fight to the last man ils étaient prêts à se battre jusqu'au dernier;

∎ she was on her last legs elle était au bout du rouleau;

∎ your car is on its last legs votre voiture ne va pas tarder à vous lâcher;

∎ the regime is on its last legs le régime vit ses derniers jours ou est au bord de l'effondrement;

∎ I'll get my money back if it's the last thing I do je récupérerai mon argent coûte que coûte;

∎ I always clean my teeth last thing at night je me brosse toujours les dents juste avant de me coucher;

∎ we finished the work last thing on Tuesday afternoon on a terminé le travail juste avant de partir mardi après-midi

(c) (most recent) dernier;

∎ you said that last time c'est ce que tu as dit la dernière fois;

∎ this time last year we were in New York l'année dernière à cette époque nous étions à New York;

∎ I've been here for the last five years je suis ici depuis cinq ans, cela fait cinq ans que je suis ici;

∎ I haven't been to church for the last few weeks je ne suis pas allé à l'église ces dernières semaines;

∎ I didn't like her last film je n'ai pas aimé son dernier film

(d) (least likely)

∎ he's the last person I expected to see c'est bien la dernière personne que je m'attendais à voir;

∎ he's the last person I'd ask to help me c'est (bien) la dernière personne à qui je demanderais de l'aide;

∎ that's the last thing that's worrying me ça c'est le cadet de mes soucis;

∎ that's the last place I'd have looked c'est bien le dernier endroit où j'aurais cherché;

∎ that's the last thing I wanted je n'avais vraiment pas besoin de ça;

∎ you're the last one to criticize tu es vraiment mal placé pour critiquer

2 adverb

(a) (finally)

∎ she arrived last elle est arrivée la dernière ou en dernier;

∎ she came or finished last (in race) elle est arrivée dernière;

∎ and last but not least… et en dernier, mais non par ordre d'importance,…;

∎ last but not least on the list we have M. Livingstone et enfin sur la liste, je ne voudrais pas oublier M. Livingstone

(b) (most recently)

∎ when did you last see him? quand l'avez-vous vu la dernière fois?;

∎ they last came to see us in 1989 leur dernière visite remonte à 1989;

∎ I can't remember when I last ate je ne sais plus quand j'ai pris mon dernier repas;

∎ Commerce & Finance last in, first out dernier entré, premier sorti

(c) (lastly) enfin, en dernier lieu;

∎ last, I would like to say… et pour finir, je voudrais dire…

3 noun

(a) (final one) dernier(ère) m,f;

∎ am I the last? (to arrive) suis-je le dernier?;

∎ the last in the class le dernier de la classe;

∎ she was the last to arrive elle est arrivée la dernière;

∎ the last of the Romanovs le dernier des Romanov;

∎ the next to last, the last but one l'avant-dernier;

∎ Bible the last shall be first les derniers seront les premiers

(b) (previous one)

∎ each more handsome than the last tous plus beaux les uns que les autres;

∎ the day before last avant-hier;

∎ the night before last (at night) la nuit d'avant-hier; (in the evening) avant-hier soir;

∎ the winter before last l'hiver d'il y a deux ans;

∎ the Prime Minister before last l'avant-dernier Premier ministre

(c) (end)

∎ that was the last I saw of her c'est la dernière fois que je l'ai vue, je ne l'ai pas revue depuis;

∎ I hope that's the last we see of them j'espère qu'on ne les reverra plus;

∎ I'll never see the last of this! je n'en verrai jamais la fin!, je n'en viendrai jamais à bout!;

∎ I think we've heard the last of him je pense qu'on n'en entendra plus parler;

∎ we'll never hear the last of it on n'a pas fini d'en entendre parler;

∎ you haven't heard the last of this! (as threat) vous aurez de mes nouvelles!;

∎ leave the pans till last gardez les casseroles pour la fin, lavez les casseroles en dernier;

∎ literary to look one's last on sth voir qch pour la dernière fois;

∎ literary to breathe one's last rendre le dernier soupir;

∎ literary to be near one's last (death) être proche de sa fin

(d) (remainder) reste m;

∎ we drank the last of the wine on a bu ce qui restait de vin

4 at last adverb

enfin;

∎ free at last enfin libre;

∎ at long last enfin;

∎ now at last I understand enfin, je comprends;

∎ at long last she's found a job she enjoys elle a enfin trouvé un emploi qui lui plaît;

∎ at last! where on earth have you been? (te voilà) enfin! mais où étais-tu donc?;

∎ at last he said: "do you forgive me?" enfin il demanda: "tu me pardonnes?"

5 at the last adverb

∎ formal at the last the judges came out in her favour à la dernière minute, les juges ont décidé en sa faveur;

∎ she was there at the last elle est restée jusqu'au bout

6 to the last adverb

jusqu'au bout;

∎ faithful to the last fidèle jusqu'au bout;

∎ she insisted to the last that she was not guilty elle a dit jusqu'au bout qu'elle n'était pas coupable

►► American last call = dans un bar, moment où le barman annonce que l'heure de la fermeture approche et qu'il s'apprête à servir les dernières consommations;

the Last Frontier = surnom donné à l'Alaska;

the Last Judgment le Jugement dernier;

last name nom m de famille;

Telecommunications last number redial touche f bis;

British last orders = dans un pub, moment où le barman annonce que l'heure de la fermeture approche et qu'il s'apprête à servir les dernières consommations;

British Military last post (at night) extinction f des feux; (at funeral) sonnerie f aux morts;

∎ to sound the last post (over the grave) jouer la sonnerie aux morts;

last rites derniers sacrements mpl;

the Last Supper la (sainte) Cène;

Stock Exchange last trading day dernier jour m de cotation;

last word (final decision) dernier mot m; (latest style) dernier cri m;

∎ the Treasury has the last word on defence spending le ministère des Finances a le dernier mot en matière de dépenses militaires;

∎ she was wearing the very last word in hats elle portait un chapeau du dernier cri

✾ Book ✾ Film 'Last Exit to Brooklyn' Selby, Edel 'Dernière sortie pour Brooklyn'

last² [lɑ:st]

1 intransitive verb

(a) (continue to exist or function) durer;

∎ it's too good to last c'est trop beau pour durer;

∎ if the good weather lasts si le beau temps se maintient;

∎ it lasted (for) ten days cela a duré dix jours;

∎ how long did the film last? combien de temps le film a-t-il duré?, quelle était la durée du film?;

∎ how long can we last without water? combien de temps tiendrons-nous sans eau?;

∎ the supplies will not last two months les vivres ne feront pas deux mois;

∎ he didn't last more than a year as a singer il n'a pas tenu plus d'un an dans la chanson;

∎ their romance didn't last (for) long leur idylle n'a pas duré longtemps;

∎ he won't last long (in job) il ne tiendra pas longtemps; (will soon die) il n'en a plus pour longtemps;

∎ the batteries didn't last (for) long les piles n'ont pas duré longtemps;

∎ familiar cakes never last long in this house (they get eaten quickly) les gâteaux ne durent jamais très longtemps dans cette maison;

∎ built/made to last construit/fait pour durer

(b) (be enough)

∎ we've got enough food to last another week nous avons assez à manger pour une semaine encore

(c) (keep fresh → food) se conserver;

∎ these flowers don't last (long) ces fleurs ne tiennent ou ne durent pas (longtemps)

2 transitive verb

∎ his money didn't last him to the end of the holiday il n'a pas eu assez d'argent pour tenir jusqu'à la fin des vacances;

∎ have we got enough to last us until tomorrow? en avons-nous assez pour tenir ou aller jusqu'à demain?;

∎ my camera's lasted me ten years mon appareil photo a duré dix ans;

∎ that fountain pen will last you a lifetime vous pourrez garder ce stylo à plume toute votre vie;

∎ it has lasted him well ça lui a fait de l'usage;

➲ last out

1 intransitive verb

(a) (survive) tenir;

∎ I'm not sure I'll last out at this job je ne sais pas si je pourrai faire ce travail longtemps;

∎ how long will he last out? combien de temps peut-il tenir?

(b) (be enough) suffire;

∎ will our supplies last out till the end of the month? les provisions suffiront-elles jusqu'à la fin du mois?

2 separable transitive verb

∎ he didn't last the night out il n'a pas passé la nuit, il est mort pendant la nuit;

∎ will the play last out the month? est-ce que la pièce tiendra le mois?;

∎ to last the year out (person) survivre jusqu'à la fin de l'année; (supplies) suffire pour l'année;

∎ my overcoat will last the winter out mon pardessus fera encore l'hiver;

∎ I don't know if I'll be able to last out the afternoon without any coffee je ne sais pas si j'arriverai à tenir tout l'après-midi sans café

last³

noun

(for shoes) forme f

1) [ganz] zuletzt; als letzter/letzte [sprechen, ankommen]

2) (on last previous occasion) das letzte Mal; zuletzt

1) (mention, sight)

2) (person or thing) letzter...

3) (day, moment[s])

4)

1) (continue) andauern; [Wetter, Ärger:] anhalten

2) (manage to continue) es aushalten

3) (suffice) reichen

(for shoemaker) Leisten, der

* * *

1) (coming at the end: We set out on the last day of November; He was last in the race; He caught the last bus home.) letzt

2) (most recent; next before the present: Our last house was much smaller than this; last year/month/week.) letzt

3) (coming or remaining after all the others: He was the last guest to leave.) letzt

- lastly

1) (to continue to exist: This situation lasted until she got married; I hope this fine weather lasts.) andauern

2) (to remain in good condition or supply: This carpet has lasted well; The bread won't last another two days - we'll need more; This coat will last me until I die.) sich halten

•

- lasting

* * *

[lɑ:st, AM læst]

n Leisten m

▶ the cobbler should stick to his \last ( prov) Schuster, bleib bei deinem Leisten prov

[lɑ:st, AM læst]

I. adj inv

1. attr (after all the others)

▪ the \last... der/die/das letzte...

they caught the \last bus sie nahmen den letzten Bus

to arrive/come \last als Letzte(r) f(m) ankommen/kommen

to plan sth [down] to the \last detail etw bis ins kleinste Detail planen

to do sth \last thing etw als Letztes tun

I always switch on the washing machine \last thing [at night] ich mache als Letztes vor dem Schlafengehen immer noch die Waschmaschine an

the second/third \last door die vor-/drittletzte Tür

the \last one der/die/das Letzte

our house is the \last one on the left before the traffic lights unser Haus ist das Letzte links vor der Ampel

to be the \last one to do sth etw als Letzte(r) tun

she was the \last one to arrive sie kam als Letzte an

2. (lowest in order, rank) letzte(r, s)

the Mets will surely finish the season in \last place die Mets werden am Ende der Saison sicher Tabellenletzte sein

▪ to be [or come] \last Letzte(r) f(m) sein; (in a race, competition) Letzte(r) f(m) werden

to be fourth/third from \last Viert-/Drittletzte(r) f(m) sein

to be \last but one [or next to \last] [or second [to] \last] Vorletzte(r) f(m) sein

3. attr (final, remaining) letzte(r, s)

I'll give you one \last chance ich gebe dir eine letzte Chance

this is the \last time I do him a favour das ist das letzte Mal, dass ich ihm einen Gefallen tue

can I have the \last piece of chocolate? darf ich das letzte Stück Schokolade essen?

I'm down to my \last 50p ich habe nur noch 50 Pence

it's our \last hope das ist unsere letzte Hoffnung

these are the \last of our supplies das sind unsere letzten Vorräte

he calculated the costs down to the \last penny er hat die Kosten bis auf den letzten Penny berechnet

I'm almost finished — this is the \last but one box to empty ich bin fast fertig — das ist schon die vorletzte Kiste, die ich noch ausräumen muss

to the \last man MIL bis auf den letzten Mann

at the \last minute/moment in letzter Minute/im letzten Moment

till/to the \last minute [or [possible] moment] bis zur letzten Minute/zum letzten Moment

he always leaves important decisions to the \last possible moment er schiebt wichtige Entscheidungen immer bis zum letzten Moment hinaus

he waited till the \last minute to submit an offer er wartete mit seinem Angebot bis zur letzten Minute

as a [or BRIT also in the] \last resort im äußersten Notfall

police are supposed to use guns only as a \last resort die Polizei soll nur im äußersten Notfall von der Waffe Gebrauch machen

that's my \last word [on the subject] das ist mein letztes Wort [zu diesem Thema]

to have the \last word das letzte Wort haben

at long \last schließlich und endlich, zu guter Letzt

at long \last the government is starting to listen to our problems endlich wird die Regierung einmal auf unsere Probleme aufmerksam

4. attr (most recent, previous) letzte(r, s)

when was the \last time you had a cigarette? wann hast du zum letzten Mal eine Zigarette geraucht?

did you hear the storm \last night? hast du letzte Nacht den Sturm gehört?

did you see the news on TV \last night? hast du gestern Abend die Nachrichten im Fernsehen gesehen?

sb's \last album/book jds letztes Album/Buch

\last month/November letzten Monat/November

\last Sunday [or on Sunday \last] letzten Sonntag

your letter of Sunday \last ( form) Ihr Brief von letztem Sonntag

the results from \last Sunday:

\last Sunday's results die Ergebnisse vom letzten Sonntag

\last week/year letzte Woche/letztes Jahr

the week/year before \last vorletzte Woche/vorletztes Jahr

in the \last five years in den letzten fünf Jahren

5. attr (most unlikely)

▪ the \last sb/sth der/die/das Letzte

she was the \last person I expected to see sie hätte ich am allerwenigsten erwartet

the \last thing I wanted was to make you unhappy das Letzte, was ich wollte, war dich unglücklich zu machen

he's the \last person I want to see at the moment er ist der Letzte, den ich im Moment sehen möchte

the \last thing she needed is a husband eine Ehemann hatte ihr gerade noch gefehlt! iron

▶ to have the \last laugh zuletzt lachen fig; (show everybody) es allen zeigen

I'll have the \last laugh [over you]! dir werd ich's schon noch zeigen! fam

▶ the \last laugh is on sb jd lacht zuletzt fig

▶ sth is on its \last legs ( fam) etw gibt bald den Geist auf [o macht es nicht mehr lange] fam

the foundry business was on its \last legs das Gießereigeschäft pfiff auf dem letzten Loch sl

▶ sb is on their \last legs ( fam: very tired) jd ist fix und fertig fam, jd pfeift auf dem letzten Loch sl; (near to death) jd macht es nicht mehr lange fam

▶ to be the \last straw das Fass [endgültig] zum Überlaufen bringen fig

▶ to be the \last word ( fam) zurzeit das Beste [o Nonplusultra] sein

digital audio is the \last word in sound reproduction digitales Audio ist zurzeit das Nonplusultra im Bereich der Klangwiedergabe

II. adv inv

1. (most recently) das letzte Mal, zuletzt

I \last saw him three weeks ago ich habe ihn zuletzt [o das letzte Mal] vor drei Wochen gesehen

when did you have a cigarette \last [or \last have a cigarette]? wann hast du das letzte Mal geraucht?

2. (after the others) als Letzte(r, s)

the horse came in \last das Pferd kam als Letztes ins Ziel

until \last bis zuletzt [o zum Schluss

3. (lastly) zuletzt, zum Schluss

\last, and most important... der letzte und wichtigste Punkt...

and \last, I'd like to thank you all for coming und zum Schluss möchte ich Ihnen allen dafür danken, dass Sie gekommen sind

\last but not [or by no means] least nicht zu vergessen, nicht zuletzt

\last but not least, I'd like to thank you for coming und ich möchte mich nicht zuletzt auch für ihr Kommen bedanken

III. n

<pl ->

1. (one after all the others)

▪ the \last der/die/das Letzte

she was the \last to arrive sie kam als Letzte

the \last but one esp BRIT, AUS [or AM the next to \last] der/die/das Vorletzte

to be the \last to do sth als Letzte(r) f(m) etw tun

why are they always the \last to arrive? warum kommen sie immer als Letzte?

why is he always the \last to be told? warum erfährt er immer alles als Letzter?

2. (only one left, final one)

▪ the \last der/die/das Letzte

she was the \last of the great educational reformers sie war die Letzte der großen Schulreformer

to breathe one's \last den letzten Atemzug tun

3. (remainder)

▪ the \last der letzte Rest

that was the \last of the real coffee das war der letzte Rest Bohnenkaffee

the \last of the ice cream/strawberries der letzte Rest Eis/Erdbeeren

4. (most recent, previous one)

▪ the \last der/die/das Letzte

the \last we heard of her was that... das Letzte, was wir von ihr hörten, war, dass...

the \last I heard she had lost her job das Letzte was ich von ihr weiß ist, dass sie ihren Job verloren hatte

the \last we heard from her,... als wir das letzte Mal von ihr hörten,...

the \last we saw of her,... als wir sie das letzte Mal sahen,...

that was the \last we saw of her das war das letzte Mal, das wir sie gesehen haben, seitdem haben wir sie nie wieder gesehen

5. usu sing SPORT (last position) letzter Platz

Lion Cavern came from \last in a slowly run race Lion Cavern holte in einem langsamen Rennen vom letzten Platz auf

6. BOXING

▪ the \last die letzte Runde

7. ( fam: end)

the dying embers sparked their \last die Funken verglühten

you haven't heard the \last of this! das letzte Wort ist hier noch nicht gesprochen!

we'll never hear the \last of it if they win wenn sie gewinnen, müssen wir uns das endlos anhören fam

to see the \last of sth ( fam) etw nie wieder sehen müssen

at \last endlich

I've finished my essay at \last! endlich habe ich meinen Essay fertig!

to the \last ( form: until the end) bis zuletzt; (utterly) durch und durch

to defend one's principles to the \last seine Prinzipien bis zuletzt verteidigen

she is patriotic to the \last sie ist durch und durch patriotisch

[lɑ:st, AM læst]

I. vi

1. (go on for) [an]dauern

it was only a short trip, but very enjoyable while it \lasted die Reise war zwar nur kurz, aber insgesamt sehr angenehm

to \last [for] a month/week einen Monat/eine Woche dauern

the rain is expected to \last all weekend der Regen soll das gesamte Wochenende anhalten

2. (endure) halten; enthusiasm, intentions anhalten

this is too good to \last das ist zu gut, um wahr zu sein

it's the only battery we've got, so make it \last wir habe nur diese eine Batterie — verwende sie also sparsam

her previous secretary only \lasted a month ihre vorige Sekretärin blieb nur einen Monat

you won't \last long in this job if... du wirst diesen Job nicht lange behalten, wenn...

he wouldn't \last five minutes in the army! er würde keine fünf Minuten beim Militär überstehen!

built to \last für die Ewigkeit gebaut

II. vt

▪ to \last sb supplies etc [aus]reichen; car, machine halten

we've only got enough supplies to \last us a week unsere Vorräte werden nur eine Woche reichen

to \last five years fünf Jahre halten

to \last [sb] a lifetime ein Leben lang halten

if you look after your teeth they will \last you a lifetime wenn du deine Zähne gut pflegst, wirst du sie dein Leben lang behalten

* * *

1. adj

1) letzte(r, s)

2)

2. n

1) (= final one or part, one before) der/die/das Letzte

2)

3. adv

1. vt

2. vi

* * *

last¹ [lɑːst; US læst]

A adj (adv → lastly)

1. letzt(er, e, es):

the last two die beiden Letzten;

last but one vorletzt(er, e, es);

last but two drittletzt(er, e, es);

for the last time zum letzten Mal;

to the last man bis auf den letzten Mann;

the Last Day REL der Jüngste Tag;

Last Frontier US (Beiname für den Staat) Alaska n;

last letter Abschiedsbrief m;

last name bes US Familien-, Nach-, Zuname m;

last number recall ( oder redial) TEL Wahlwiederholung f;

last rites REL Sterbesakramente;

last thing als Letztes (besonders vor dem Schlafengehen);

be last SPORT etc an letzter Stelle liegen; → home A 4, honor B 2, judgment 6 b, etc

2. letzt(er, e, es), vorig(er, e, es):

last Monday, Monday last (am) letzten oder vorigen Montag;

a) gestern Abend,

b) in der vergangenen Nacht, letzte Nacht;

last week in der letzten oder vorigen Woche, letzte oder vorige Woche

3. neuest(er, e, es), letzt(er, e, es):

the last news;

the last thing in jazz das Neueste im Jazz; → word Bes Redew

4. letzt(er, e, es) (allein übrig bleibend):

my last hope ( pound, etc)

5. letzt(er, e, es), endgültig, entscheidend: → word Bes Redew

6. äußerst(er, e, es):

the last degree der höchste Grad;

of the last importance von höchster Bedeutung;

my last price mein äußerster oder niedrigster Preis

7. letzt(er, e, es) (am wenigsten erwartet oder geeignet):

the last man I would choose der Letzte, den ich wählen würde;

he was the last person I expected to see mit ihm oder mit seiner Gegenwart hatte ich am wenigsten gerechnet;

the last thing I would do das Letzte, was ich tun würde;

this is the last thing to happen es ist sehr unwahrscheinlich, dass das geschieht

8. letzt(er, e, es), miserabelst(er, e, es), scheußlichst(er, e, es):

B adv

1. zuletzt, als Letzt(er, e, es), an letzter Stelle:

he came last er kam als Letzter;

last but not least last, (but) not least; nicht zuletzt; nicht zu vergessen;

last of all zuallerletzt, ganz zuletzt

2. zuletzt, zum letzten Mal:

3. schließlich, zu guter Letzt

4. letzt…:

last-mentioned letztgenannt, -erwähnt

C s

1. (der, die, das) Letzte:

the last to arrive der Letzte, der ankam;

he was the last to come er kam als Letzter;

he would be the last to say such a thing er wäre der Letzte, der so etwas sagen würde

2. (der, die, das) Letzte oder Letztgenannte

3. umg kurz für last baby, last letter etc:

I wrote in my last ich schrieb in meinem letzten Brief;

this is our last das ist unser Jüngstes

4. umg

a) letzte Erwähnung

b) letztmaliger Anblick

c) letztes Mal: → Bes Redew

5. Ende n:

a) Schluss m

b) Tod m: → Bes RedewBesondere Redewendungen: at last

a) endlich,

b) schließlich, zuletzt;

at long last schließlich (doch noch), nach langem Warten;

a) bis zum Äußersten,

b) bis zum Ende oder Schluss,

c) bis zum Tod;

breathe one’s last seinen letzten Atemzug tun, sein Leben aushauchen;

a) zum letzten Male hören von,

b) nichts mehr hören von;

we’ve seen the last of him den sehen wir nie mehr wieder;

we’ll never see the last of that guy den Kerl werden wir nie mehr los

last² [lɑːst; US læst]

A v/i

1. (an-, fort)dauern:

too good to last zu schön, um lange zu währen

2. bestehen:

3. auch last out durch-, aus-, standhalten, sich halten:

he won’t last much longer er wird es nicht mehr lange machen (auch Kranker);

he didn’t last long in that job er hat es in dieser Stelle nicht lange ausgehalten

4. (sich) halten:

the paint will last die Farbe wird halten;

the book will last das Buch wird sich (lange) halten;

last well haltbar sein

5. auch last out (aus)reichen, genügen:

while the money lasts solange das Geld reicht;

while stocks last solange der Vorrat reicht;

we must make our supplies last wir müssen mit unseren Vorräten auskommen

B v/t

1. jemandem reichen:

it will last us a week damit kommen wir eine Woche aus

2. meist last out

a) überdauern, -leben,

b) (es mindestens) ebenso lange aushalten wie

last³ [lɑːst; US læst] s Leisten m:

put shoes on the last Schuhe über den Leisten schlagen;

stick to one’s last fig bei seinem Leisten bleiben

last⁴ [lɑːst; US læst] s Last f (Gewicht oder Hohlmaß, verschieden nach Ware und Ort, meist etwa 4000 englische Pfund oder 30 hl)

* * *

1) [ganz] zuletzt; als letzter/letzte [sprechen, ankommen]

2) (on last previous occasion) das letzte Mal; zuletzt

1) (mention, sight)

2) (person or thing) letzter...

3) (day, moment[s])

4)

1) (continue) andauern; [Wetter, Ärger:] anhalten

2) (manage to continue) es aushalten

3) (suffice) reichen

(for shoemaker) Leisten, der

* * *

letzt adj.

letzter adj.

letztes adj.

vorig adj.

zuletzt adj. (weather) v.

andauern (Wetter) v. v.

andauern v.

dauern v.

тж Great Land, Last Frontier

1893-1987

   Debuta en el cine como especialista para Edison en los anos 10 del pasado siglo, antes de convertirse en ayudante de direccion de George Seitz y, despues, en realizador de seriales. En el ano 35 empieza a trabajar para Columbia, dirigiendo westerns, uno detras de otro, a un ritmo frenetico. Durante las decadas de los 40 y 50 se convierte en el gran especialista de Hollywood en seriales, para Republic y para Columbia, llegando a dirigir para esta el que historicamente se considera el ultimo de ellos, Blazing the Overland Trail, en 1956. Como tantos otros, termino dando con sus huesos en la television. La ultima frontera (The Black Ghost) es una version reducida, para un unico largometraje, del serial The Last Frontier.

   FILMOGRAFIA

    Rogue of the Rio Grande. 1930. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. World Wide. Jose Bohr, Myrna Loy.

    The Last Frontier (co-d.: Thomas L. Storey). 1932. 213 minutos. 12 capitu los. Blanco y Negro. RKO. Lon Chaney, Jr., Dorothy Gulliver.

    The Black Ghost (La ultima frontera) (co-d.: Thomas L. Storey). 1932. 70 minutos. Blanco y Negro. RKO. Lon Chaney, Jr., Dorothy Gulliver.

    Jaws of Justice. 1933. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Principal Pictures. Jack Perrin, Ruth Sullivan.

    Ferocious Pal. 1934. 55 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Principal Pictures. Ruth Sullivan, Tom London.

    Western Courage. 1935. 61 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Columbia. Ken Maynard, Geneva Mitchell, Charles K. French.

    Lawless Riders. 1935. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Columbia. Ken Maynard, Geneva Mitchell, Harry Woods, Frank Yaconelli.

    Heir to Trouble. 1935. 59 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Columbia. Ken Maynard, Joan Perry, Harry Woods.

    The Cattle Thief (El cuatrero). 1936. 50 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Columbia. Ken Maynard, Geneva Mitchell, Ward Bond.

    Avenging Waters (El torrente vengador). 1936. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Columbia. Ken Maynard, Beth Marion, Ward Bond.

    Heroes of the Range. 1936. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Columbia. Ken Maynard, June Gale, Harry Woods.

    The Fugitive Sheriff (El sheriff vindicado). 1936. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Columbia. Ken Maynard, Beth Marion, Walter Miller.

    The Unknown Ranger. 1936. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Larry Darmour (Columbia). Bob Allen, Martha Tibbetts.

    Rio Grande Ranger. 1936. 54 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Larry Darmour (Columbia). Bob Allen, Iris Meredith.

    Ranger Courage. 1937. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Larry Darmour (Columbia). Bob Allen, Martha Tibbetts.

    Law of the Ranger. 1937. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Larry Darmour (Columbia). Bob Allen, Elaine Shepard.

    Reckless Ranger. 1937. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Larry Darmour (Columbia). Bob Allen, Louise Small, Jack Perrin.

    The Rangers Step In. 1937. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Larry Darmour (Columbia). Bob Allen, Eleanor Stewart.

    Across the Plains. 1939. 59 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Monogram. Jack Randall, Joyce Bryant, Frank Yaconelli.

    Riders of the Frontier. 1939. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Monogram. Tex Ritter, Jean Joyce, Jack Rutherford.

    Oklahoma Terror. 1939. 50 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Monogram. Jack Randall, Virginia Carroll, Al St John.

    Westbound Stage. 1939. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Monogram. Tex Ritter, Muriel Evans.

    Cowboy from Sundown. 1940. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Monogram. Tex Ritter, Pauline Haddon, Roscoe Ates.

    Ridin’ the Cherokee Trail. 1941. 62 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Monogram. Tex Ritter, Betty Miles, Slim Andrews.

    Arizona Bound. 1941. 55 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Monogram. Buck Jones, Tim McCoy, Luana Walters, Raymond Hatton.

    The Gunman from Bodie. 1941. 62 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Monogram. Buck Jones, Tim McCoy, Christine McIntyre, Raymond Hatton.

    The Valley of Vanishing Men. 1942. 280 minutos. 15 capitulos. Blanco y Negro. Columbia. Bill Elliott, Carmen Morales, Slim Summerville.

    Calling Wild Bill Elliott. 1943. 55 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Bill Elliott, Ann Jeffreys, George Hayes.

    Canyon City. 1943. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Don Barry, Helen Talbot, Wally Vernon.

    California Joe. 1943. 55 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Don Barry, Helen Talbot, Wally Vernon.

    Beneath Western Skies. 1944. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Robert Livingston, Smiley Burnette, Effie Laird.

    Mojave Firebrand. 1944. 55 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Bill Elliott, Anne Jeffreys, George Hayes.

    Tucson Raiders. 1944. 55 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Bill Elliott, Peggy Stewart, George Hayes, Bob Blake.

    Code of the Prairie. 1944. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Smiley Burnette, Sunset Carson, Peggy Stewart.

    Zorro’ Black Whip (Latigo negro) (co-d.: Wallace Grissell). 1944. 211 minutos. 12 capitulos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. George J. Lewis, Linda Stirling.

    The Lone Texas Ranger. 1945. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Bill Elliott, Helen Talbot, Bob Blake.

    The Phantom Rider (co-d.: Fred C. Brannon). 1946. 167 minutos. 12 capitulos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Robert Kent, Peggy Stewart.

    King of the Forest Rangers (co-d.: Fred Brannon). 1946. 167 minutos. 12 capitulos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Larry Thompson, Helen Talbot.

    Son of Zorro (co-d.: Fred C. Brannon). 1947. 180 minutos. 13 capitulos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. George Turner, Peggy Stewart.

    Cody of the Pony Express. 1950. 15 capitulos. Blanco y Negro. Columbia. Jock O’Mahoney, Peggy Stewart, Dickie Moore.

    Roar of the Iron Horse, Rail-Blazer of the Apache Trail (co-d.: Thomas Carr). 1950. 260 minutos. 15 capitulos. Blanco y Negro. Columbia. Jock O’Mahoney, Virginia Herrick.

    Brave Warrior. 1952. 73 minutos. Technicolor. Columbia. Jon Hall, Christine Larson.

    Son of Geronimo: Apache Avenger. 1952. 240 minutos. 15 capitulos. Blanco y Negro. Columbia. Clayton Moore, Rodd Redwing, Eileen Rowe.

    Gunfighters of the Northwest. 1954. 15 capitulos. Blanco y Negro. Columbia. Jock O’Mahoney, Phyllis Coates, Clayton Moore.

    Riding with Buffalo Bill. 1954. 15 capitulos. Blanco y Negro. Columbia. Marshall Reed, Rick Vallin, Joanne Rio.

    Perils of the Wilderness. 1956. 15 capitulos. Blanco y Negro. Columbia. Dennis Moore, Richard Emory, Eve Anderson (Evelyn Finley).

    Blazing the Overland Trail. 1956. 15 capitulos. Blanco y Negro. Columbia. Lee Roberts, Dennis Moore, Norma Brooks.

    Requiem for a Gunfighter. 1965. 91 minutos. Technicolor. Techniscope. Embassy. Rod Cameron, Stephen McNally, Olive Sturgess.

    The Bounty Killer. 1965. 92 minutos. Technicolor. Techniscope. Embassy. Dan Duryea, Audrey Dalton, Rod Cameron.

1890-1969

   Uno mas de la larga lista de realizadores de peliculas baratas para consumo inmediato que empezo en el cine casi al mismo tiempo que lo hacia Hollywood, y que despues de ser montador de al menos cuatro peliculas entre 1922 y 1924, salto a la direccion en 1926 con Warner Bros. Al llegar el sonoro lo encontramos dedicado casi por completo al western de serie, en el que trabaja para casi todos, William Boyd (sobre todo), Charles Starrett, Buck Jones, Tim Holt, Don Barry, Bob Steele, Bill Elliott, Johnny Mack Brown, en peliculas con frecuencia intercambiables, de no ser por la personalidad de su protagonista. Segun cual fuera el actor protagonista, asi es la productora: Paramount, Columbia, Monogram, RKO o Republic.

   FILMOGRAFIA

    Hop-a-Long Cassidy (La cancion del vaquero). 1935. 62 min. Blanco y Negro. Paramount. William Boyd, Jimmy Ellison, Paula Stone.

    The Eagle’s Brood. 1935. 59 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Paramount. William Boyd, Jimmy Ellison, Dorothy Revier, Joan Woodbury.

    Bar 20 Rides Again. 1935. 65 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Paramount. William Boyd, Jimmy Ellison, Jean Rouveral, George Hayes.

    Call of the Prairie (El ultimo testigo). 1936. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Paramount. William Boyd, Jimmy Ellison, Muriel Evans.

    Three on the Trail. 1936. 67 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Paramount. William Boyd, Jimmy Ellison, Muriel Evans, George Hayes

    Heart of the West. 1936. 60 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Paramount. William Boyd, Jimmy Ellison, Lynn Gabriel, George Hayes.

    King of the Royal Mounted. 1936. 61 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Fox. Robert Kent, Rosalind Keith, Jack Luden.

    Wild Brian Kent. 1936. 60 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Principal/RKO. Ralph Bellamy, Mae Clarke.

    Secret Valley. 1937. 60 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Fox. Richard Arlen, Virginia Grey.

    It Happened Out West. 1937. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Fox. Paul Kelly, Judith Allen.

    Western Gold. 1937. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Fox. Smith Ballew, Heather Angel.

    The Showdown. 1940. 65 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Paramount. William Boyd, Russell Hayden, Britt Wood, Jane Clayton.

    In Old Colorado. 1941. 66 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Paramount. William Boyd, Russell Hayden, Margaret Hayes, Andy Clyde.

    Twilight on the Trail. 1941. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Paramount. William Boyd, Andy Clyde, Wanda McKay, Brad King.

    Outlaws of the Desert. 1941. 66 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Paramount. William Boyd, Jean Phillips, Andy Clyde, Brad King.

    Riders of the Badlands. 1941. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Columbia. Charles Starrett, Russell Hayden, Kay Hugues.

    West of Tombstone. 1942. 59 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Columbia. Charles Starrett, Russell Hayden, Marcella Martin.

    Below the Border. 1942. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Monogram. Buck Jones, Tim McCoy, Linda Brent, Raymond Hatton.

    Ghost Town Law. 1942. 62 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Monogram. Buck Jones, Tim McCoy, Virginia Carpenter, Raymond Hatton.

    Down Texas Way (La ley del norte). 1942. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Monogram. Buck Jones, Tim McCoy, Luana Walters, Raymond Hatton.

    Riders of the West. 1942. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Monogram. Buck Jones, Tim McCoy, Christine McIntyre, Raymond Hatton.

    West of the Law. 1942. 60 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Monogram. Buck Jones, Tim McCoy, Evelyn Cooke, Raymond Hatton.

    Pirates of the Prairie (El terror de Oklahoma). 1942. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. RKO. Tim Holt, Cliff Edwards, Nell O’Day.

    Dawn of the Great Divide. 1942. 63 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Monogram. Buck Jones, Raymond Hatton, Mona Barrie.

    Carson City Cyclone. 1943. 55 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Don Barry, Lynn Merrick, Emmett Lynn.

    Santa Fe Scouts. 1943. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Bob Steele, Tom Tyler, Lois Collier, Jimmie Dodd.

    Riders of the Rio Grande. 1943. 55 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Bob Steele, Tom Tyler, Lorraine Miller, Jimmie Dodd.

    Fugitive from Sonora. 1943. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Don Barry, Lynn Merrick, Wally Vernon.

    Beyond the Last Frontier. 1943. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Eddie Dew, Smiley Burnette, Lorraine Miller.

    Bordertown Gun Fighters. 1943. 55 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Bill Elliott, Anne Jeffreys, George Hayes.

    The Man from the Rio Grande. 1943. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Don Barry, Nancy Gay, Wally Vernon.

    Wagon Tracks West. 1943. 55 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Bill Elliott, Anne Jeffreys, George Hayes.

    Hidden Valley Outlaws. 1944. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Bill Elliott, Anne Jeffreys, George Hayes.

    Outlaws of Santa Fe. 1944. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Don Barry, Helen Talbot, Wally Vernon.

    The San Antonio Kid. 1944. 59 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Bill Elliott, Linda Stirling, Bob Blake.

    Law of the Valley. 1944. 52 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Monogram. Johnny Mack Brown, Raymond Hatton, Lynne Carver.

    The Navajo Trail. 1945. 60 minutos. Blanco y Negro Monogram. Johnny Mack Brown, Raymond Hatton, Jennifer Holt.

    The Topeka Terror. 1945. 55 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Allan Lane, Linda Stirling, Roy Barcroft.

    Gun Smoke. 1945. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Monogram. Johnny Mack Brown, Raymond Hatton, Jennifer Holt.

    Renegades of the Rio Grande. 1945. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Universal. Rod Cameron, Jennifer Holt, Fuzzy Knight.

    Ridin’ Down the Trail. 1947. 53 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Monogram. Jimmy Wakely, Dub Taylor, Beverly Jons.

    Where the North Begins. 1947. 42 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Screen Guild. Russell Hayden, Jennifer Holt.

    Trail of the Mounties. 1947. 42 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Screen Guild. Russell Hayden, Jennifer Holt.

    Triggerman. 1948. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Monogram. Johnny Mack Brown, Raymond Hatton, Virginia Carroll.

    Night Raiders. 1952. 51 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Monogram. Whip Wilson, Fuzzy Knight, Lois Hall.

1906-1967

   Nacido en Point Loma, hoy integrado en la ciudad de San Diego, California, hijo de emigrantes alemanes, trabaja como actor en Nueva York, ciudad a la que se habian trasladado sus padres. De actor pasa a ser regidor y, algo despues, director. Segun sus propias palabras, trabajo y aprendio mucho con hombres de teatro como Rouben Mamoulian, David Belasco y Chester Erskine. A finales de 1937 lo encontramos trabajando para David O’Selznick como director de casting.

   Finalizada esta etapa breve, se introduce en Paramount, donde aprende verdaderamente el oficio de director. Asi, en 1942 tiene su primera oportunidad como tal; la pelicula, un inteligente producto de serie B, se llamaba Dr. Broadway. En la serie B permanecio Mann durante varios anos, trabajando para Universal (una vez), Republic, RKO y Eagle Lion hasta que, en 1949, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer lo contrata para hacer un punado de peliculas que, si no disponian de presupuestos muy generosos, si le otorgaron la posibilidad de rodar su primer western, La puerta del Diablo (luego pasaria a ser el tercero porque Winchester 73 y Las furias se estrenaron antes). Tan to La puerta del Diablo como Las furias, que rodo para Paramount, tienen tintes shakespearea nos, especialmente la segunda, y desde luego son westerns con un elevado grado de madurez, westerns “distintos”. Pero sera ese mismo ano, 1950, el que vera nacer la primera de un conjunto de peliculas modelicas, cinco en total, dirigidas por Anthony Mann y protagonizadas por James Stewart, que consolidaran al realizador como uno de los iconos del western moderno. Aunque en lo sucesivo se alternaran en la filmografia del director los westerns y los filmes de otro tipo, por ejemplo, los grandes espectaculos visuales como El Cid (1961) y La caida del imperio romano (The Fall of the Roman Empire, 1963), dirigidas en Espana para Samuel Bronston, Mann sera, ya para siempre, “el hombre del oeste”. Budd Boetticher, Delmer Daves, John Ford, Ho ward Hawks, Anthony Mann y Sam Peckinpah son, por orden alfabetico, los grandes nombres del western. A ellos se pueden acercar Henry Hathaway y William A. Wellman, pero probablemente el primero de todos es Anthony Mann, autor de una obra rica y coherente en la que combina a la perfeccion el espacio abierto y sus cualidades, con el ser humano y sus pasiones. El dolor mitico asociado a la venganza lo expresa James Stewart, el actor clave de los westerns de Mann, de modo incomparable, aunque hay que detenerse en la leccion, que roza lo sublime, que nos dictan, a duo, director y actor, en este caso Gary Cooper, en esa obra maestra que se llama El hombre del Oeste. Recurriendo por una vez a la frivolidad, se podria acunar un eslogan publicitario parecido a este: “Si quiere decir western, diga Anthony Mann”.

   FILMOGRAFIA

    Winchester 73 (Winchester 73). 1950. 92 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Universal. James Stewart, Shelley Winters, Dan Duryea, Stephen McNally, Millard Mitchell, John McIntire.

    The Furies (Las furias). 1950. 109 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Paramount. Barbara Stanwyck, Walter Huston, Wendell Corey, Gilbert Roland, Judith Anderson.

    Devil’s Doorway (La puerta del diablo). 1950. 81 minutos. Blanco y Negro. MGM. Robert Taylor, Paula Raymond, Louis Calhern.

    Bend of the River (Horizontes lejanos). 1952. 91 minutos. Technicolor. Universal. James Stewart, Julia Adams, Arthur Kennedy, Rock Hudson, Jay C. Flippen, Lori Nelson.

    The Naked Spur (Colorado Jim). 1953. 91 minutos. Technicolor. MGM. James Stewart, Janet Leigh, Robert Ryan, Ralph Meeker, Millard Mitchell.

    The Far Country (Tierras lejanas). 1955. 97 minutos. Technicolor. Uni versal. James Stewart, Ruth Roman, Corinne Calvet, Walter Brennan, Jay C. Flippen, John McIntire.

    The Man from Laramie (El hombre de Laramie). 1955. 104 minutos. Technicolor. CinemaScope. Columbia. James Stewart, Cathy O’Donnell, Arthur Kennedy, Donald Crisp.

    The Last Frontier. 1955. 98 minutos. Technicolor. CinemaScope. Columbia. Victor Mature, Guy Madison, Anne Bancroft. Robert Preston.

    The Tin Star (Cazador de forajidos). 1957. 93 minutos. B y N. VistaVision. Paramount. Henry Fonda, Anthony Perkins, Betsy Palmer, Neville Brand.

    Man of the West (El hombre del Oeste). 1958. 100 minutos. Color DeLuxe. CinemaScope. UA. Gary Cooper, Julie London, Lee J. Cobb, Arthur O’Connell.

    Cimarron (Cimarron). 1961. 147 minutos. Metrocolor. Panavision. MGM. Glenn Ford, Maria Schell, Anne Baxter, Arthur O’Connell, Russ Tamblyn, Mercedes McCambridge.

1888-1954

   Dirige, entre 1929 y 1935, seis peliculas, cinco de ellas teniendo como co-director a Spencer Gordon Bennett; la sexta y ultima esta co-dirigida por Ed ward A. Kull. De esos seis filmes, tres, rodados en 1929, son mudos. La mayor parte de ellos son se riales, de ahi la insistente presencia de dos directores. The Black Ghost es una secuela de La ultima frontera.

   FILMOGRAFIA

    The Last Frontier (La ultima frontera) (co-d.: Spencer Gordon Bennett). 1932. 213 minutos. 12 capitulos. Blanco y Negro. RKO. Lon Chaney, Jr., Dorothy Gulliver.

    The Black Ghost (c-d.: Spencer Gordon Bennett). 1932. 70 minutos. Blanco y Negro. RKO. Lon Chaney, Jr., Dorothy Gulliver.

1899-1964

   Nacido Samuel Neufeld, hermano de Sigmund Neufeld, futuro jefe de produccion de PRC, dirige cortometrajes desde 1926, y largometrajes desde 1933. Probablemente el mas prolifico realizador norteamericano de la era sonora, dirigio, sobre todo, westerns. Por sus manos paso una parte importante de los viejos heroes del genero, en peliculas de una hora de duracion y argumentos eternamente repetidos. Solo leer su filmografia produce cierto vertigo. Establecerla rigurosamente es una tarea ardua, especialmente en lo relativo al orden cronologico estricto, por lo que en esta ocasion mas que en ninguna otra hay que entender que ese orden es susceptible de correccion. Utiliza los seudonimos de Peter Stewart y Sherman Scott. Se ha prescindido de tres aparentes largometrajes, situados al final de su carrera y obtenidos, cada uno de ellos, por super posicion de dos episodios del serial televisivo “Hawkeye and the Last of the Mohicans”. Aunque el nivel medio de los filmes de Sam Newfeld es realmente bajo, hay que citar dos curiosidades: Harlem on the Prairie (1937) esta interpretado integramente por negros, y The Terror of Tiny Town (1938), por enanos, que se mueven en decorados de tamano normal.

   FILMOGRAFIA

    Undercover Men. 1935. 60 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Dominion. Charles Starrett, Adrienne Dore.

    Northern Frontier. 1935. 60 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Ambassador. Kermit Maynard, Eleanor Hunt, LeRoy Mason.

    Code of the Mounted (Fiel a su consigna). 1935. 60 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Ambassador. Kermit Maynard, Lilian Miles, Robert Warwick.

    Branded a Coward (El botin del rancho). 1935. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Supreme. Johnny Mack Brown, Billie Seward, Syd Taylor.

    Trails of the Wild. 1935. 60 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Ambassador. Kermit Maynard, Billie Seward, Fuzzy Knight.

    Timber War. 1935. 60 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Ambassador. Kermit Maynard, Lucille Lund, Lawrence Gray.

    Bulldog Courage. 1935. 60 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Puritan. Tim McCoy, Joan Woodbury.

    Roarin’ Guns. 1936. 59 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Puritan. Tim McCoy, Rosalinda Rice, Rex Lease.

    Border Caballero. 1936. 59 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Puritan. Tim McCoy, Lois January, Ralph Byrd.

    Lightnin’ Bill Carson. 1936. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Puritan. Tim McCoy, Lois January, Rex Lease.

    Aces and Eights. 1936. 62 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Puritan. Tim McCoy, Luana Walters, Rex Lease.

    The Lion’s Den. 1936. 59 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Puritan. Tim McCoy, Joan Woodbury, Don Barclay.

    Ghost Patrol. 1936. 60 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Puritan. Tim McCoy, Claudia Dell, Walter Miller.

    The Traitor. 1936. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Puritan. Tim McCoy, Frances Grant, Wally Wales.

    Roarin’ Lead (co-d.: Mack V. Wright). 1936. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Bob Livingston, Ray Corrigan, Max Terhune, Christine Maple.

    Stormy Trails. 1936. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Colony (Grand National). Rex Bell, Lois Wilde, Lane Chandler.

    The Gambling Terror. 1937. 53 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Johnny Mack Brown, Iris Meredith, Horace Murphy.

    Lightnin’ Crandall. 1937. 60 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Bob Steele, Lois January, Frank LaRue.

    Trail of Vengeance. 1937. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Johnny Mack Brown, Iris Meredith.

    Melody of the Plains. 1937. 55 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Spectrum. Fred Scott, Al St. John, Louise Small.

    Bar-Z Bad Men. 1937. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Johnny Mack Brown, Lois January.

    Guns in the Dark. 1937. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Johnny Mack Brown, Claire Rochelle, Syd Saylor.

    Gun Lords of Stirrup Basin. 1937. 53 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Bob Steele, Louise Stanley, Frank LaRue.

    A Lawman Is Born. 1937. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Johnny Mack Brown, Iris Meredith, Al St. John.

    Doomed at Sundown. 1937. 53 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Bob Steele, Lorraine Randall.

    Boothill Brigade. 1937. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Johnny Mack Brown, Claire Rochelle, Horace Murphy.

    Arizona Gunfighter. 1937. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Bob Steele, Jean Carmen, Ted Adams.

    Ridin’ the Lone Trail. 1937. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Bob Steele, Claire Rochelle, Charles King.

    Moonlight on the Range. 1937. 52 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Spectrum. Fred Scott, Al St. John, Lois January.

    The Fighting Deputy. 1937. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Spectrum. Fred Scott, Al St. John, Marjorie Beebe.

    The Colorado Kid. 1937. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Bob Steele, Marion Weldon, Karl Hackett.

    Harlem on the Prairie (co-d.: Jed Buell). 1937. 55 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Associated. Herbert Jeffries, Connie Harris.

    Paroled To Die. 1938. 55 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Bob Steele, Kathleen Eliot, Karl Hackett.

    The Ranger’s Roundup. 1938. 55 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Spectrum (Stan Laurel Prod.) Fred Scott, Al St. John, Christine McIntyre.

    Thunder in the Desert. 1938. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Bob Steele, Louise Stanley, Don Barclay.

    Code of the Rangers. 1938. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Concord (Monogram). Tim McCoy, Judith Ford, Rex Lease.

    The Feud Maker. 1938. 55 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Bob Steele, Marion Weldon, Karl Hackett.

    Knights of the Plains (Allende Rio Grande). 1938. 57 min. Blanco y Negro. Spectrum (Stan Laurel Prod.) Fred Scott, Al St. John, Marion Weldon.

    Songs and Bullets. 1938. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Spectrum (Stan Laurel Prod.) Fred Scott, Al St. John, Alice Ardell.

    Gunsmoke Trail. 1938. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Concord (Monogram). Jack Randall, Louise Stanley, Al St. John.

    Phantom Ranger. 1938. 54 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Concord (Mono gram). Tim McCoy, Suzanne Kaaren.

    Desert Patrol. 1938. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Bob Steele, Marion Weldon, Rex Lease.

    Durango Valley Raiders. 1938. 55 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Bob Steele, Louise Stanley, Karl Hackett.

    Frontier Scout. 1938. 61 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Fine Arts (Grand Natio nal). George Houston, Al St. John, Beth Marion.

    Lightning Carson Rides Again. 1938. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Victory. Tim McCoy, Joan Barclay, Ben Corbett.

    Six-Gun Trail. 1938. 59 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Victory. Tim McCoy, Nora Lane, Ben Corbett.

    The Terror of Tiny Town. 1938. 62 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Principal (Co lumbia). Billy Curtis, Little Billy Rhodes, Nita Krebs, Yvonne Moray.

    Trigger Pals. 1939. 60 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Cinemart (Grand Natio nal). Art Jarrett, Lee Powell, Dorothy Faye, Al St. John.

    Six-Gun Rhythm. 1939. 55 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Arcadia (Grand National). Tex Fletcher, Joan Barclay, Ralph Peters.

    Code of the Cactus. 1939. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Victory. Tim McCoy, Dorothy Short, Ben Corbett.

    Texas Wildcats. 1939. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Victory. Tim McCoy, Joan Barclay, Ben Corbett.

    Outlaw’s Paradise. 1939. 62 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Victory. Tim McCoy, Joan Barclay, Ben Corbett.

    Straight Shooter. 1939. 54 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Victory. Tim McCoy, Julie Sheldon, Ben Corbett.

    Fighting Renegade. 1939. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Victory. Tim McCoy, Joyce Bryant, Ben Corbett.

    Trigger Fingers. 1939. 60 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Victory. Tim McCoy, Jill Martin (Harley Wood), Ben Corbett.

    Fighting Mad. 1939. 60 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Monogram. James Newill, Sally Blane, Benny Rubin, Dave O’Brien.

    Flaming Lead. 1939. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Colony. Ken Maynard, Eleanor Stewart, Dave O’Brien.

    The Sagebrush Family Trails West (Peter Stewart). 1940. 60 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Bobby Clark, Nina Guilbert, Earle Hodgins.

    Texas Renegades (Peter Stewart). 1940. 59 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Tim McCoy, Nora Lane, Harry Harvey.

    Death Rides the Range. 1940. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Colony. Ken Maynard, Fay McKenzie, Raph Peters.

    Frontier Crusader (Peter Stewart). 1940. 62 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Tim McCoy, Dorothy Short, Lou Fulton.

    Billy the Kid Outlawed (Peter Stewart). 1940. 52 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Bob Steele, Al St. John, Louise Currie.

    Gun Code (Peter Stewart). 1940. 54 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Tim McCoy, Inna Gest, Lou Fulton.

    Marked Men (Sherman Scott). 1940. 66 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Warren Hull, Isabel Jewell.

    Arizona Gang Busters (Peter Stewart). 1940. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Tim McCoy, Pauline Haddon, Lou Fulton.

    Billy the Kid in Texas (Peter Stewart). 1940. 52 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Bob Steele, Terry Walker, Al St. John.

    Riders of Black Mountain (Peter Stewart). 1940. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Tim McCoy, Pauline Haddon, Ralph Peters, Rex Lease.

    Billy the Kid’s Gun Justice (Peter Stewart). 1940. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Bob Steele, Louise Currie, Al St. John.

    The Lone Rider Rides On. 1941. 61 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. George Houston, Hillary Brooke, Al St. John.

    Billy the Kid’s Range War (Peter Stewart). 1941. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Bob Steele, Joan Barclay, Al St. John.

    The Lone Rider Crosses the Rio/Across the Border. 1941. 63 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. George Houston, Roquell Verrin, Al St. John.

    Outlaws of the Rio Grande (Peter Stewart). 1941. 63 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Tim McCoy, Virginia Carpenter, Ralph Peters.

    Billy the Kid’s Fighting Pals (Sherman Scott). 1941. 62 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Bob Steele, Phyllis Adair, Al St. John.

    The Lone Rider in Ghost Town. 1941. 64 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. George Houston, Alaine Brandes, Al St. John.

    Billy the Kid in Santa Fe (Sherman Scott). 1941. 66 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Bob Steele, Al St. John, Rex Lease.

    The Texas Marshal (Paul Stewart). 1941. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Tim McCoy, Kay Leslie, Art Davis, Dave O’Brien.

    The Lone Rider in Frontier Fury. 1941. 62 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. George Houston, Hillary Brooke, Al St. John.

    The Lone Rider Ambushed. 1941. 67 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. George Houston, Maxine Leslie, Al St. John.

    Billy the Kid Wanted (Sherman Scott). 1941. 64 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Buster Crabbe, Choti Sherwood, Al St. John.

    The Lone Rider Fights Back. 1941. 64 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. George Houston, Dorothy Short, Al St. John.

    Billy the Kid’s Round-Up (Sherman Scott). 1941. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Buster Crabbe, Joan Barclay, Al St. John.

    Texas Manhunt (Peter Stewart). 1942. 60 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Bill Boyd, Art Davis, Julie Duncan, Lee Powell.

    The Lone Rider and the Bandit. 1942. 54 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. George Houston, Al St. John, Vickie Lester.

    Raiders of the West (Peter Stewart). 1942. 60 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Bill Boyd, Art Davis, Virginia Carroll, Lee Powell.

    Billy the Kid Trapped (Sherman Scott). 1942. 59 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Buster Crabbe, Al St. John, Anne Jeffreys.

    The Lone Rider in Cheyenne. 1942. 59 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. George Houston, Al St. John, Ella Neal.

    Rolling Down the Great Divide (Peter Stewart). 1942. 59 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Bill Boyd, Art Davis, Wanda McKay, Lee Powell.

    Billy the Kid’s Smoking Guns (Sherman Scott). 1942. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Buster Crabbe, Al St. John, Joan Barclay.

    Texas Justice. 1942. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. George Houston, Al St. John, Wanda McKay.

    Tumbleweed Trail (Peter Stewart). 1942. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Bill Boyd, Art Davis, Marjorie Manners, Lee Powell.

    Law and Order (Sherman Scott). 1942. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Buster Crabbe, Al St. John, Wanda McKay.

    Prairie Pals (Peter Stewart). 1942. 60 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Bill Boyd, Art Davis, Esther Estrella, Lee Powell.

    Border Roundup. 1942. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. George Hous ton, Al St. John, Patricia Knox.

    Along the Sundown Trail (Peter Stewart). 1942. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Bill Boyd, Art Davis, Julie Duncan, Lee Powell.

    Sheriff of Sage Valley (Sherman Scott). 1962. 60 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Buster Crabbe, Al St. John, Maxine Leslie.

    The Mysterious Rider. 1942. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Buster Crabbe, Al St. John, Caroline Burke.

    Outlaws of Boulder Pass. 1942. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. George Houston, Al St. John, Marjorie Manners.

    Overland Stagecoach. 1942. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Robert Livingston, Al St. John, Julie Duncan.

    The Kid Rides Again (Sherman Scott). 1943. 60 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Buster Crabbe, Al St. John, Iris Meredith.

    Wild Horse Rustlers. 1943. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Robert Livingston, Al St. John, Lane Chandler, Linda Johnson.

    Fugitive of the Plains. 1943. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Buster Crabbe, Al St. John, Maxine Leslie.

    Death Rides the Plains. 1943. 55 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Robert Livingston, Al St. John, Nica Doret.

    Western Cyclone. 1943. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Buster Crabbe, Al St. John, Marjorie Manners.

    Wolves of the Range. 1943. 60 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Robert Livingston, Al St. John, Frances Gladwyn.

    Cattle Stampede. 1943. 60 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Buster Crabbe, Al St. John, Frances Gladwin.

    The Renegade. 1943. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Buster Crabbe, Al St. John, Lois Ranson.

    Blazing Frontier. 1943. 59 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Buster Crabbe, Al St. John, Marjorie Manners.

    Raiders of Red Gap. 1943. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Robert Livingston, Al St. John, Myrna Dell.

    The Devil Riders. 1943. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Buster Crabbe, Al St. John, Patti McCarthy.

    Frontier Outlaws. 1944. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Buster Crabbe, Al St. John, Frances Gladwin.

    Thundering Gunslingers. 1944. 59 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Buster Crabbe, Al St. John, Frances Gladwin.

    Valley of Vengeance. 1944. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Buster Crabbe, Al St. John, Evelyn Finley.

    The Drifter. 1944. 62 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Buster Crabbe, Al St. John, Carol Parker.

    Fuzzy Settles Down. 1944. 60 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Buster Crabbe, Al St. John, Patti McCarthy.

    Rustler’s Hideout. 1944. 60 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Buster Crabbe, Al St. John, Patti McCarthy.

    Wild Horse Phantom. 1944. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Buster Crabbe, Al St. John, Elaine Morley.

    Oath of Vengeance. 1944. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Buster Crabbe, Al St. John, Mady Lawrence.

    His Brother’s Ghost. 1945. 54 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Buster Crabbe, Al St. John.

    Shadows of Death. 1945. 60 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Buster Crabbe, Al St. John, Donna Dax.

    Gangster’s Den. 1945. 55 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Buster Crabbe, Al St. John, Sydney Logan.

    Stagecoach Outlaws. 1945. 55 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Buster Crabbe, Al St. John, Frances Gladwin.

    Border Badmen. 1945. 59 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Buster Crabbe, Al St. John, Lorraine Miller.

    Fighting Bill Carson. 1945. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Buster Crabbe, Al St. John, Kay Hugues.

    Prairie Rustlers. 1945. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Buster Crabbe, Al St. John, Evelyn Finley.

    Ligthning Raiders. 1946. 61 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Buster Crabbe, Al St. John, Mady Lawrence.

    Gentlemen with Guns. 1946. 52 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Buster Crabbe, Al St. John, Patricia Knox.

    Terrors on Horseback. 1946. 55 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Buster Crabbe, Al St. John, Patti McCarthy.

    Ghost of Hidden Valley. 1946. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Buster Crabbe, Al St. John, Jean Carlin.

    Prairie Badmen. 1946. 55 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Buster Crabbe, Al St. John, Patricia Knox.

    Overland Riders. 1946. 54 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Buster Crabbe, Al St. John, Patti McCarthy.

    Outlaws of the Plains. 1946. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Buster Crabbe, Al St. John, Patti McCarthy.

    Western Pacific Agent. 1950. 62 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Lippert. Kent Taylor, Sheila Ryan, Robert Lowery.

    Three Desperate Men. 1951. 69 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Lippert. Preston Foster, Virginia Grey, Jim Davis.

    Skipalong Rosenbloom. 1951. 72 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Eagle Lion Classics (UA). Max Rosenbloom, Jackie Coogan, Hillary Brooke.

    Outlaw Women (co-d.: Ron Ormond). 1952. 75 minutos. Cinecolor. Howco (Lippert). Marie Windsor, Richard Rober.

    Last of the Desperados. 1955. 71 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Associated. James Craig, Margia Dean, Jim Davis.

    The Wild Dakotas. 1956. 71 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Associated. Bill Williams, Coleen Gray, Jim Davis.

    The Three Outlaws. 1956. 74 minutos. Blanco y Negro. SuperScope. Asso ciated. Neville Brand, Alan Hale, Jr., Lillian Molieri, Jeanne Carmen.

    Frontier Gambler. 1956. 70 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Associated. John Bromfield, Coleen Gray, Jim Davis, Margia Dean.

    Wolf Dog. 1958. 69 minutos. Blanco y Negro. RegalScope. Regal (Fox). Jim Davis, Allison Hayes.

    Flaming Frontier. 1958. 70 minutos. Blanco y Negro. RegalScope. Regal (Fox). Bruce Bennett, Paisley Maxwell, Jim Davis.

   Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.

   A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.

   Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140

   The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."

   In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.

   The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.

   Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385

   Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims in

   Portugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.

   The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.

   Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580

   The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.

   The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.

   What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.

   By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.

   Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.

   The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.

   By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.

   In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.

   Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640

   Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.

   Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.

   On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.

   Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822

   Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.

   Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.

   In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and the

   Church (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.

   Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.

   Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.

   Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910

   During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.

   Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.

   Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.

   Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.

   Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.

   As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.

   First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26

   Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.

   The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.

   Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.

   The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74

   During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."

   Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.

   For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),

   and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.

   The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.

   With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.

   During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.

   The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.

   At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.

   The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.

   Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76

   Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.

   Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.

   In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.

   In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.

   In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.

   The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict until

   UN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.

   Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000

   After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.

   From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.

   Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.

   Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.

   In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.

   In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.

   Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.

    Contemporary Portugal

   Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.

   The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.

   Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.

   Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).

   All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.

   The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.

   After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.

   Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.

   Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.

   From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.

   Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.

   In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.

   An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU.

1908-1991

   Nacido en Nueva York. Ayudante de direccion desde 1932 y director de mas de cien peliculas desde 1937, primero para Republic hasta 1944, mas tarde para Columbia hasta 1948, y despues hasta 1956 para Universal. A medida que pasaba de una productora a otra los presupuestos de sus peliculas iban siendo mas holgados, por lo que no es de extranar que su ultimo western, que es tambien su ultima pelicula, El gran Jack, sea la de presupuesto mas amplio y, dicho sea de paso, la mejor. Sherman es, sin lugar a dudas, uno de los grandes especialistas del western. Una ojeada a su filmografia hace innecesarias otras explicaciones; entre 1937 y 1943 trabaja a un ritmo frenetico para satisfacer las necesidades de algunas de las estrellas del genero, destacando, en particular, su dedicacion a la serie The Three Mes quiteers. A partir de 1946 realiza sus obras mas personales, que, sin pasar de discretas, cumplen sobradamente su cometido.

   FILMOGRAFIA

    Wild Horse Rodeo. 1937. 55 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Robert Livingston, Ray Corrigan, Max Terhune, June Martel.

    The Purple Vigilantes. 1938. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Robert Livingston, Ray Corrigan, Max Terhune, Joan Barclay.

    Outlaws of Sonora. 1938. 55 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Robert Livingston, Ray Corrigan, Max Terhune, Jean Joyce.

    Riders of the Black Hills. 1938. 55 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Robert Livingston, Ray Corrigan, Max Terhune, Ann Evers.

    Heroes of the Hills. 1938. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Robert Livingston, Ray Corrigan, Max Terhune, Priscilla Lawson.

    Pals of the Saddle. 1938. 55 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. John Wayne, Ray Corrigan, Max Terhune, Doreen McKay.

    Overland Stage Raiders. 1938. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. John Wayne, Ray Corrigan, Max Terhune, Louise Brooks.

    Rhythm of the Saddle. 1938. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Gene Autry, Smiley Burnette, Peggy Moran.

    Santa Fe Stampede. 1938. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. John Wayne, Ray Corrigan, Max Terhune, June Martel.

    Red River Range. 1938. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. John Wayne, Ray Corrigan, Max Terhune, Polly Moran, Lorna Gray.

    Mexicali Rose. 1939. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Gene Autry, Smiley Burnette, Luana Walters.

    The Night Riders. 1939. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. John Way ne, Ray Corrigan, Max Terhune, Doreen McKay, Ruth Rogers.

    Three Texas Steers. 1939. 59 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. John Wayne, Ray Corrigan, Max Terhune, Carole Landis.

    Wyoming Outlaw. 1939. 62 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. John Wayne, Ray Corrigan, Raymond Hatton, Adele Pearce.

    Colorado Sunset. 1939. 61 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Gene Autry, Smiley Burnette, June Storey.

    New Frontier. 1939. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. John Wayne, Ray Corrigan, Raymond Hatton, Phyllis Isley (Jennifer Jones).

    The Kansas Terrors. 1939. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Robert Livingston, Raymond Hatton, Duncan Renaldo, Jacqueline Wells (Julie Bishop).

    Rovin’ Tumbleweeds. 1939. 62 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Gene Autry, Smiley Burnette, Mary Carlisle.

    The Cowboys from Texas. 1939. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Robert Livingston, Raymond Hatton, Duncan Renaldo, Carole Landis.

    South of the Border. 1939. 71 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Gene Autry, Smiley Burnette, June Storey, Lupita Tovar.

    Ghost Valley Raiders. 1940. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Don Barry, Lona Andre, LeRoy Mason.

    Covered Wagon Days. 1940. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Robert Livingston, Raymond Hatton, Duncan Renaldo, Kay Griffith, Ruth Robinson.

    Rocky Mountain Rangers. 1940. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Robert Livingston, Raymond Hatton, Duncan Renaldo, Rosella Towne.

    One Man’s Law. 1940. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Don Barry, Janet Waldo, Dub Taylor.

    The Tulsa Kid. 1940. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Don Barry, Luana Walters, Jimmy Wakely.

    Under Texas Skies. 1940. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Robert Livingston, Bob Steele, Rufe Davis, Lois Ranson.

    Frontier Vengeance (co-d.: Nate Watt). 1940. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Don Barry, Betty Moran.

    The Trail Blazers. 1940. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Robert Livingston, Bob Steele, Rufe Davis, Pauline Moore.

    Texas Terrors. 1940. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Don Barry, Julie Duncan, Al St. John.

    Lone Star Raiders. 1940. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Robert Livingston, Bob Steele, Rufe Davis, June Johnson, Sarah Padden.

    Wyoming Wildcat. 1941. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Don Barry, Julie Duncan, Syd Taylor.

    The Phantom Cowboy. 1941. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Don Barry, Virginia Carroll, Rex Lease.

    Two Gun Sheriff. 1941. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Don Barry, Lynn Merrick.

    Desert Bandit. 1941. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Don Barry, Lynn Merrick.

    Kansas Cyclone. 1941. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Don Barry, Lynn Merrick.

    The Apache Kid. 1941. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Don Barry, Lynn Merrick, Al St.John.

    Death Valley Outlaws. 1941. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Don Barry, Lynn Merrick.

    A Missouri Outlaw. 1941. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Don Barry, Lynn Merrick.

    Arizona Terror. 1942. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Don Barry, Lynn Merrick, Al St.John.

    Stagecoach Express. 1942. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Don Barry, Lynn Merrick, Al St.John.

    Jesse James, Jr. 1942. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Don Barry, Lynn Merrick, Al St. John.

    Cyclone Kid. 1942. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Don Barry, Lynn Merrick, Lloyd Andrews.

    The Sombrero Kid. 1942. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Don Barry, Lynn Merrick, Lloyd Andrews.

    The West Side Kid. 1943. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Don Ba rry, Dale Evans, Henry Hull.

    Renegades (Renegados). 1946. 88 minutos. Technicolor. Columbia. Eve lyn Keyes, Willard Parker, Larry Parks.

    Last of the Redmen. 1947. 77 minutos. Cinecolor. Key Pictures (Columbia). Jon Hall, Julie Bishop, Evelyn Ankers, Michael O’Shea.

    Relentless. 1948. 93 minutos. Technicolor. Cavalier Productions (Colum bia). Robert Young, Marguerite Chapman, Willard Parker, Akim Tamiroff.

    Black Bart (El enmascarado). 1948. 80 minutos. Technicolor. Universal. Yvonne De Carlo, Dan Duryea, Jeffrey Lynn.

    River Lady (Rio abajo). 1948. 78 minutos. Universal. Yvonne De Carlo, Dan Duryea, Rod Cameron, Helena Carter.

    Red Canyon (Huracan). 1949. 82 minutos. Technicolor. Universal. Ann Blyth, Howard Duff, George Brent.

    Calamity Jane and Sam Bass. 1949. 85 minutos. Technicolor. Universal. Yvonne De Carlo, Howard Duff, Dorothy Hart, Willard Parker.

    Comanche Territory (Orgullo de comanche). 1950. 76 minutos. Techni color. Universal. Maureen O’Hara, MacDonald Carey, Will Geer.

    Tomahawk (El piel roja). 1951. 82 minutos. Technicolor. Universal. Yvo n ne De Carlo, Van Heflin, Preston Foster, Rock Hudson.

    The Battle at Apache Pass. 1951. 85 minutos. Technicolor. Universal. John Lund, Jeff Chandler, Beverly Tyler, Susan Cabot.

    The Lone Hand. 1953. 80 minutos. Technicolor. Universal. Joel McCrea, Barbara Hale, Alex Nicol.

    War Arrow (Asalto al Fuerte Clark). 1954. 78 minutos. Technicolor. Uni versal. Jeff Chandler, Maureen O’Hara, John McIntire, Suzan Ball.

    Border River. 1954. 81 minutos. Technicolor. Universal. Joel McCrea, Yvon ne De Carlo, Pedro Armendariz.

    Dawn at Socorro. 1954. 80 minutos. Technicolor. Universal. Rory Calhoun, Piper Laurie, David Brian, Kathleen Hugues.

    Chief Crazy Horse (El gran jefe). 1955. 86 minutos. Technicolor. Cinema - Scope. Universal. Victor Mature, Suzan Ball, John Lund, Ray Danton.

    Count Three and Pray. 1955. 102 minutos. Technicolor. CinemaScope. Co pa Productions (Columbia). Van Heflin, Joanne Woodward, Phil Carey.

    The Treasure of Pancho Villa (El tesoro de Pancho Villa). 1955. 96 min. Technicolor. Superscope. RKO. Rory Calhoun, S. Winters, Gilbert Roland.

    Comanche (Duelo de razas). 1956. 87 minutos. Color DeLuxe. Cinema Sco pe. UA. Dana Andrews, Kent Smith, John Litel, Linda Cristal.

    Reprisal! 1956. 74 minutos. Technicolor. Lewis J. Rachmil (Columbia). Guy Madison, Felicia Farr, Kathryn Grant.

    The Hard Man. 1957. 80 minutos. Technicolor. Romson (Columbia). Guy Madison, Valerie French, Lorne Greene.

    The Last of the Fast Guns. 1958. 82 minutos. Eastmancolor. CinemaScope. Universal. Jock Mahoney, Eduard Franz, Gilbert Roland, Linda Cristal.

    Ten Days to Tulara. 1958. 77 minutos. Blanco y Negro. UA. Sterling Hay den, Grace Raynor.

    Hell Bent for Leather. 1960. 82 minutos. Eastmancolor. Panavision. Uni versal. Audie Murphy, Stephen McNally, Felicia Farr.

    For the Love of Mike. 1960. 87 minutos. Color DeLuxe. CinemaScope. Fox. Richard Basehart, Stuart Edwin, Elsa Cardenas.

    Joaquin Murrieta. 1965. 108 minutos. Eastmancolor. Pro-Artis Iberica. Jeffrey Hunter, Arthur Kennedy, Sara Lezana, Diana Lorys.

    Smoky. 1966. 103 minutos. Color DeLuxe. Fox. Fess Parker, Katy Jurado, Diana Hyland.

    Big Jake (El gran Jack). 1971. 110 minutos. Technicolor. Panavision. Natio nal General. John Wayne, Richard Boone, Maureen O’Hara.

1900-1979

   Sus origenes en el cine se situan dentro de la tarea de operador de camara y, despues, ayudante de direccion. Su carrera como director comienza realmente en 1936. Lesley Selander es uno de los grandes especialistas del western, con mas de cien peliculas a sus espaldas. Decir “uno de los grandes especialistas” no es lo mismo que decir “uno de los grandes nombres” y, en efecto, la trayectoria de Selander, en lo que a la calidad de sus peliculas se refiere, es irregular. Lo que, sin embargo, sorprende es que la valoracion media de sus westerns no es baja, lo que indica que el director poseia un especial instinto para el genero, que pone de manifiesto con una plastica mas que correcta y un buen manejo del tiempo de la narracion. Inabarcable por su extension, es dificil senalar los filmes que destacan en tan amplia muestra, pero si me veo en la obligacion de citar alguno, no dudaria en elegir las peliculas que hizo para Allied Artists a finales de los anos 40 y principios de los 50, y algunas otras de las ultimas que realizo, como Dakota Lil o The Broken Star.

   FILMOGRAFIA

    Ride’ Em Cowboy. 1936. 59 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Universal. Buck Jo nes, Luana Walters.

    The Boss Rider of Gun Creek. 1936. 65 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Univ er sal. Buck Jones, Muriel Evans.

    Empty Saddles. 1936. 67 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Universal. Buck Jones, Louise Brooks, Claire Rochelle.

    Sandflow. 1937. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Universal. Buck Jones, Lita Chevret.

    Left Handed Law. 1937. 63 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Universal. Buck Jones, Noel Francis, Nina Quartero.

    Smoke Tree Range. 1937. 59 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Universal. Buck Jones, Muriel Evans.

    Hopalong Rides Again. 1937. 65 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Paramount. William Boyd, Lois Wilde, Russell Hayden, George Hayes.

    The Barrier. 1937. 90 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Paramount. Leo Carrillo, Jean Parker, James Ellison.

    Partners of the Plains. 1938. 68 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Paramount. William Boyd, Gwen Gaze, Russell Hayden, Harvey Clark.

    Cassidy on Bar 20. 1938. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Paramount. William Boyd, Nora Lane, Russell Hayden, Frank Darien.

    Heart of Arizona. 1938. 68 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Paramount. William Boyd, Natalie Moorhead, Russell Hayden, George Hayes.

    Bar 20 Justice. 1938. 70 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Paramount. William Boyd, Gwen Gaze, Russell Hayden, George Hayes.

    Pride of the West. 1938. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Paramount. William Boyd, Charlotte Field, Russell Hayden, George Hayes.

    The Mysterious Rider. 1938. 74 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Paramount. Douglas Drumbrille, Russell Hayden, Charlotte Field.

    The Frontiersman. 1938. 74 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Paramount. William Boyd, Evelyn Venable, Russell Hayden, George Hayes.

    Sunset Trail. 1939. 60 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Paramount. William Boyd, Charlotte Wynters, Jane Clayton, Russell Hayden, George Hayes.

    Heritage of the Desert. 1939. 74 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Paramount. Donald Woods, Russell Hayden, Evelyn Venable, Robert Barrat.

    Silver on the Sage (De cara a cara). 1939. 68 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Paramount. William Boyd, Ruth Rogers, Russell Hayden, George Hayes.

    The Renegade Trail. 1939. 61 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Paramount. William Boyd, Charlotte Wynters, Russell Hayden, George Hayes.

    Range War. 1939. 66 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Paramount. William Boyd, Betty Moran, Russell Hayden, Britt Wood.

    Santa Fe Marshal. 1940. 65 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Paramount. William Boyd, Bernadine Hayes, Russell Hayden, Britt Wood.

    Knights of the Range. 1940. 68 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Paramount. Russell Hayden, Jean Parker, Victor Jory.

    The Light of Western Stars. 1940. 67 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Para mount. Russell Hayden, Victor Jory, Jo Ann Sayers.

    Hidden Gold. 1940. 61 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Paramount. William Boyd, Ruth Rogers, Russell Hayden, Britt Wood.

    Stagecoach War. 1940. 63 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Paramount. William Boyd, Julie Carter, Russell Hayden, Eddy Waller.

    Cherokee Strip. 1940. 86 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Paramount. Richard Dix, Florence Rice, Victor Jory, Andy Clyde.

    Three Men from Texas (Hombres del Oeste). 1940. 70 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Paramount. William Boyd, Esther Estrella, Russell Hayden, Andy Clyde.

    Doomed Caravan. 1941. 62 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Paramount. William Boyd, Georgia Hawkins, Russell Hayden, Andy Clyde.

    The Roundup. 1941. 90 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Paramount. Richard Dix, Patricia Morison, Preston Foster.

    Pirates on Horseback. 1941. 69 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Paramount. Wi lliam Boyd, Eleanor Stewart, Russell Hayden, Andy Clyde.

    Wide Open Town (La ley del Oeste). 1941. 78 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Paramount. William Boyd, Evelyn Brent, Bernice Kay, Russell Hayden, Andy Clyde.

    Riders of the Timberline. 1941. 59 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Paramount. William Boyd, Eleanor Stewart, Brad King,

    Stick to Your Guns. 1941. 63 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Paramount. William Boyd, Jennifer Holt, Brad King, Andy Clyde.

    Thundering Hoofs. 1942. 61 minutos. Blanco y Negro. RKO. Tim Holt, Luana Walters, Lee White, Ray Whitley.

    Bandit Ranger. 1942. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. RKO. Tim Holt, Joan Barclay, Cliff Edwards.

    Undercover Man. 1942. 68 minutos. Blanco y Negro. UA. William Boyd, Nora Lane, Esther Estrella, Jay Kirby, Andy Clyde.

    Border Patrol. 1943. 66 minutos. Blanco y Negro. UA. William Boyd, Claudia Drake, Jay Kirby, Andy Clyde.

    Buckskin Frontier. 1943. 74 minutos. Blanco y Negro. UA. Richard Dix, Jane Wyatt, Lee J. Cobb, Albert Dekker.

    Colt Comrades. 1943. 67 minutos. Blanco y Negro. UA. William Boyd, Gayle Lord, Jay Kirby, Andy Clyde.

    Red River Robin Hood. 1942. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. RKO. Tim Holt, Barbara Moffett, Cliff Edwards.

    Bar 20. 1943. 54 minutos. Blanco y Negro. UA. William Boyd, Dustine Farnum, George Reeves, Andy Clyde.

    Riders of the Deadline. 1943. 70 minutos. Blanco y Negro. UA. William Boyd, Frances Woodward, Jimmy Rogers, Andy Clyde.

    Lost Canyon. 1942. 61 minutos. Blanco y Negro. UA. William Boyd, Nora Lane, Jay Kirby, Andy Clyde.

    Lumberjack. 1944. 65 minutos. Blanco y Negro. UA. William Boyd, Ellen Hall, Jimmy Rogers, Andy Clyde.

    Forty Thieves. 1944. 60 minutos. Blanco y Negro. UA. William Boyd, Louise Currie, Jimmy Rogers, Andy Clyde.

    Call of the Rockies. 1944. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Sunset Carson, Smiley Burnette, Ellen Hall.

    Bordertown Trail. 1944. 55 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Sunset Carson, Smiley Burnette, Ellen Lowe.

    Stagecoach to Monterey. 1944. 55 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Allan Lane, Peggy Stewart, Roy Barcroft.

    Cheyenne Wildcat. 1944. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Bill Elliott, Peggy Stewart, Bob Blake.

    Sheriff of Sundown. 1944. 55 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Allan Lane, Max Terhune, Linda Sterling.

    Firebrands of Arizona. 1944. 55 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Sunset Carson, Smiley Burnette, Peggy Stewart.

    Sheriff of Las Vegas. 1944. 55 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Bill Elliott, Peggy Stewart, Bob Blake.

    The Great Stagecoach Robbery. 1945. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Bill Elliott, Bob Blake.

    Trail of Kit Carson. 1945. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Allan Lane, Helen Talbot.

    Phantom of the Plains. 1945. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Bill Elliott, Bob Blake.

    Out California Way. 1946. 67 minutos. Trucolor. Republic. Monte Hale, Adrian Booth, John Dehner, Bobby Blake.

    Last Frontier Uprising. 1947. 67 minutos. Trucolor. Republic. Monte Hale, Adrian Booth, Roy Barcroft.

    Saddle Pals. 1947. 72 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Gene Autry, Lynne Roberts, Sterling Holloway.

    Robin Hood of Texas. 1947. 71 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Gene Autry, Lynne Roberts, Sterling Holloway.

    The Red Stallion. 1947. 81 minutos. Cinecolor. Eagle Lion. Robert Paige, Noreen Nash.

    Belle Star’s Daughter. 1947. 85 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Alson (Fox). George Montgomery, Rod Cameron, Ruth Roman.

    Panhandle (Imperio del crimen). 1948. 85 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Allied. Rod Cameron, Cathy Downs, Reed Hadley, Anne Gwynne.

    Guns of Hate. 1948. 62 minutos. Blanco y Negro. RKO. Tim Holt, Nan Leslie, Richard Martin.

    Indian Agent. 1948. 63 minutos. Blanco y Negro. RKO. Tim Holt, Nan Leslie, Richard Martin, Lee “Lasses” White.

    Brothers in the Saddle. 1949. 60 minutos. Blanco y Negro. RKO. Tim Holt, Virginia Cox, Richard Martin.

    Rustlers. 1949. 61 minutos. Blanco y Negro. RKO. Tim Holt, Martha Hyer, Richard Martin.

    Stampede. 1949. 78 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Allied. Rod Cameron, Johnny Mack Brown, Gale Storm.

    Masked Raiders. 1949. 60 minutos. Blanco y Negro. RKO. Tim Holt, Marjorie Lord, Richard Martin.

    The Mysterious Desperado. 1949. 61 minutos. Blanco y Negro. RKO. Tim Holt, Movita, Richard Martin.

    Dakota Lil. 1950. 88 minutos. Cinecolor. Fox. George Montgomery, Marie Windsor, Rod Cameron.

    Riders of the Range. 1950. 60 minutos. Blanco y Negro. RKO. Tim Holt, Jacqueline White, Richard Martin.

    Storm Over Wyoming. 1950. 60 minutos. Blanco y Negro. RKO. Tim Holt, Noreen Nash, Betty Underwood, Richard Martin.

    Rider from Tucson. 1950. 60 minutos. Blanco y Negro. RKO. Tim Holt, Elaine Riley, Veda Ann Borg, Richard Martin.

    Rio Grande Patrol (Patrulla de Rio Grande). 1950. 60 minutos. Blanco y Negro. RKO. Tim Holt, Jane Nigh, Richard Martin.

    The Kangaroo Kid. 1950. 72 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Allied Australian. Jock Mahoney, Veda Ann Borg, Douglass Dumbrille, Martha Hyer.

    Short Grass. 1950. 82 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Allied. Rod Cameron, Johnny Mack Brown, Cathy Downs.

    Law of the Badlands. 1951. 60 minutos. Blanco y Negro. RKO. Tim Holt, Joan Dixon, Richard Martin

    Saddle Legion. 1951. 61 minutos. Blanco y Negro. RKO. Tim Holt, Dorothy Malone, Richard Martin.

    Cavalry Scout. 1951. 78 minutos. Cinecolor. Monogram. Rod Cameron, Audrey Long, Jim Davis.

    Gunplay. 1951. 69 minutos. Blanco y Negro. RKO. Tim Holt, Joan Dixon, Richard Martin.

    Pistol Harvest. 1951. 60 minutos. Blanco y Negro. RKO. Tim Holt, Joan Dixon, Richard Martin.

    Overland Telegraph. 1951. 60 minutos. Blanco y Negro. RKO. Tim Holt, Gail Davis, Richard Martin.

    Fort Osage. 1952. 72 minutos. Cinecolor. Monogram. Rod Cameron, Jane Nigh.

    Trail Guide (Rastro oculto). 1952. 60 minutos. Blanco y Negro. RKO. Tim Holt, Linda Douglas (Mary Jo Tarola), Richard Martin.

    Road Agent. 1952. 60 minutos. Blanco y Negro. RKO. Tim Holt, Noreen Nash, Richard Martin.

    Desert Passage. 1952. 60 minutos. Blanco y Negro. RKO. Tim Holt, Joan Dixon, Richard Martin.

    The Raiders. 1952. 80 minutos. Technicolor. Universal. Richard Conte, Viveca Lindfords, Richard Martin, Barbara Britton.

    Fort Vengeance (Fort Venganza). 1953. 75 minutos. Cinecolor. Allied. James Craig, Rita Moreno, Keith Larsen.

    Cow Country. 1953. 82 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Allied. Edmond O’Brien, Peggie Castle, Robert Barrat, Helen Westcott.

    War Paint. 1953. 89 minutos. Pathecolor. K-B Productions (UA). Robert Stack, Joan Taylor, Charles McGraw.

    Arrow in the Dust (Flechas incendiarias). 1954. 80 minutos. Technicolor. Allied. Sterling Hayden, Coleen Gray, Keith Larsen.

    The Yellow Tomahawk. 1954. 82 minutos. Color Corp. Of America. Bel-Air (UA). Rory Calhoun, Peggie Castle, Peter Graves.

    Shotgun (La pradera sangrienta). 1955. 81 minutos. Technicolor. Allied. Sterling Hayden, Yvonne De Carlo, Zachary Scott.

    Fort Yuma. 1955. 78 minutos. Technicolor. Bel-Air (UA). Peter Graves, Jean Vohs, John Hudson, Joan Taylor.

    Tall Man Riding. 1955. 83 minutos. Warnercolor. WB. Randolph Scott, Dorothy Malone, Robert Barrat, Peggie Castle.

    The Broken Star. 1956. 82 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Bel-Air (UA). Howard Duff, Lita Baron, Bill Williams.

    Quincannon - Frontier Scout. 1956. 83 minutos. Color DeLuxe. Bel-Air (UA). Tony Martin, Peggie Castle, John Bromfield.

    Tomahawk Trail. 1957. 60 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Bel-Air (UA). Chuck Connors, Susan Cummings, John Smith.

    Revolt at Fort Laramie. 1957. 73 minutos. Color DeLuxe. Bel-Air (UA). John Dehner, Gregg Palmer, Frances Helm.

    Outlaw’s Son. 1957. 87 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Bel-Air (UA). Dane Clark, Ben Cooper, Lori Nelson.

    The Lone Ranger and the Lost City of Gold. 1958. 80 minutos. East man color. UA. Clayton Moore, Jay Silverheels, Noreen Nash.

    Convict Stage. 1965. 71 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Fox. Harry Lauter, Do nald Barry, Jodi Mitchell.

    War Party. 1965. 72 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Fox. Michael T. Mikler, Do nald Barry, Laurie Mack.

    Fort Courageous. 1965. 72 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Fox. Fred Beir, Do nald Barry, Hanna Landy.

    Town Tamer. 1965. 89 minutos. Technicolor. Techniscope. A.C. Lyles (Para mount). Dana Andrews, Terry Moore, Pat O’Brien, Coleen Gray.

    The Texican/Texas Kid (Texas Kid). 1966. 86 minutos. Eastmancolor. Techniscope. M.C.R./Balcazar (Columbia). Audie Murphy, Broderick Craw ford, Diana Lorys

    Fort Utah. 1967. 83 minutos. Technicolor. Techniscope. A.C. Lyles (Para mount). John Ireland, Virginia Mayo, Scott Brady.

    Arizona Bushwhackers. 1968. 86 minutos. Technicolor. Techniscope. A.C. Lyles (Paramount). Howard Keel, Yvonne De Carlo, John Ireland.

1) appear in some manner appear suddenly (majestically, miraculously, mysteriously, etc.) внезапно и т. д. появляться /показываться/; appear some where appear far away показываться / появляться/ вдали; appear at some time she appeared very late она появилась очень поздно; he appeared at last наконец он появился; when the sun appeared again когда солнце снова показалось /вышло/ [из-за туч]

2) appear in some manner books (articles, magazines, papers, etc.) may appear serially (anonymously, unexpectedly, etc.) книги и т. д. могут выходить по частим /выпусками/ и т. д., appear at some time appear daily /every day/ (fortnightly, posthumously, etc.) выходить ежедневно и т. д.

1) appear in (on, at, etc.) smth. appear in the country (in our parts, on the frontier, at the window, etc.) появляться в стране и т.д.; appear in the distance показываться / появляться/ вдали; the ship appeared on the horizon на горизонте показался корабль; he was the last to appear on the scene он появился на месте происшествия последним; this settlement appeared in the south of the country in late XIII th century это поселение возникло на юге страны в конце тринадцатого века; where did you appear from? откуда ты взялся?; appear at some time he did not appear until six он появился лишь в шесть часов; appear below (before /in front of/, etc.) smb. when the sea appeared far below us когда далеко внизу нашим взорам /перед нами/ открылось /мы увидели/ море; he appeared before /in front of/ us in the flesh он предстал п(е)ред нами собственной персоной

2) appear on (in, before, etc.) smth. appear on the stage (in a play, before the footlights, in every concert hall, etc.) выступать /играть/ на сцене и т. д., he first appeared in films when he was six он начал сниматься в кино, когда ему было шесть лет; appear before smb. appear before children выступать перед детьми

3) appear before smb., smth. appear before a judge (before a magistrate, before a court of justice, etc.) предстать перед судьей и т. д. || appear in /at/ court а) выступать в суде; б) явиться в суд; he failed to appear in court он не явился в суд (по повестке); appear in the case (in the inquiry, etc.) проходить по этому делу и т. д.; appear for (against) smb. appear for the defendant (for the plaintiff, for Mr. Smith, etc.) выступать (в суде) в качестве адвоката ответчика и т.д.; appear for the prosecution выступать (в суде) от лица обвинения, поддерживать обвинение; appear against the defendant выступать против ответчика

4) appear at (in) smth. appear at parties (at social gatherings, in bars, etc.) бывать /появляться/ на вечерах и т.д.; she never appears in society now она теперь совсем не бывает /не появляется/ в обществе; appear in public а) показываться на люди; б) выступать публично

5) appear in smth. appear in a magazine (in a newspaper, etc.) появляться в журнале и т. д.; the article will appear in the next issue статья будет опубликована в следующем номере; novels (articles, stories, etc.) may appear in parts (in book-form, etc.) романы и т. д. могут выходить выпусками /по частям/ и т. д.; it first appeared in print last year это впервые было опубликовано в прошлом году

6) appear to smb. a wonderful vision appeared to me мне явилось чудное видение

1) appear as Hamlet (as Lear, as the hero, etc.) выступать в роли /играть роль/ Гамлета и т. д.

2) appear as witness (as plaintiff, as defendant, etc.) выступать свидетелем u т. д. (в суде)

1888-1978

   Ford Beebe es, sin duda, uno de los reyes de los seriales. Dirigio un buen punado de ellos a lo largo de su medio siglo de carrera como director, con frecuencia compartiendo realizacion con alguno de sus colegas especialista en ese quehacer. Westerns, peliculas de ciencia ficcion, de misterio, comedias, dramas; todo vale para este profesional, del que se recuerda su Flash Gordon Conquers the Universe (1940), serial en 12 episodios, cuya realizacion compartio con Ray Taylor. Nada es demasiado interesante en la obra de Ford Beebe, aunque cumple su funcion.

   FILMOGRAFIA

    The Vanishing Legion (co-d.: B. Reeves Eason). 1931. 220 minutos. 12 capitulos. Blanco y Negro. Mascot. Harry Carey, Edwina Booth.

    The Last of the Mohicans (El ocaso de los mohicanos) (co-d.: B. Reeves Eason). 1932. 231 minutos. 12 capitulos. Blanco y Negro. Mascot. Harry Carey, Hobarth Bosworth, Edwina Booth.

    Law Beyond the Range (Balas de papel). 1935. 60 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Columbia. Tim McCoy, Billie Seward, Walter Brennan.

    Man from Guntown. 1935. 61 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Puritan. Tim McCoy, Billie Seward.

    Stampede. 1936. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Columbia. Charles Starrett, Finis Barton.

    Wild West Days (co-d.: Clifford Smith). 1937. 268 minutos. 13 capitulos. Blanco y Negro. Universal. Johnny Mack Brown, Lynn Gilbert, George Shelley, Frank Yaconelli, Bob Kortman.

    The Oregon Trail (co-d.: Saul A. Goodkind). 1939. 320 minutos. 15 capitu los. Blanco y Negro. Universal. Johnny Mack Brown, Louise Stanley, Fuzzy Knight.

    Oklahoma Frontier. 1939. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Universal. Johnny Mack Brown, Anne Gwynne, Fuzzy Knight, Bob Baker.

    Winners of the West (co-d.: Ray Taylor). 1940. 247 minutos. 13 episodios. Blanco y Negro. Universal. Dick Foran, Anne Nagel.

    Son of Roaring Dan. 1940. 63 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Universal. Johnny Mack Brown, Nell O’Day, Jeanne Kelly, Fuzzy Knight.

    Riders of Death Valley (Los jinetes de la muerte) (co-d.: Ray Taylor). 1941. 283 minutos. 15 episodios. Blanco y Negro. Universal. Dick Foran, Leo Carrillo, Jeanne Kelly.

    The Masked Rider. 1941. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Universal. Johnny Mack Brown, Nell O’Day, Virginia Carroll, Fuzzy Knight.

    Overland Mail (co-d.: John Rawlins). 1942. 279 minutos. 15 episodios. Blanco y Negro. Universal. Lon Chaney, Jr., Helen Parrish, Don Terry.

    Frontier Badman (co-d.: William McGann).1943. 80 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Universal. Diana Barrymore, Robert Paige.

    Six Gun Serenade. 1947. 54 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Monogram. Jimmy Wakely, Lee “Lasses” White, Kay Morley.

    Courtin’ Trouble. 1948. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Monogram. Jimmy Wakely, Dub Taylor, Virginia Belmont.

    Satan’s Craddle. 1949. 60 minutos. Blanco y Negro. UA. Duncan Renaldo, Leo Carrillo, Ann Savage.

    The Dalton Gang. 1949. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Lippert. Don Barry, Robert Lowery, Julie Adams.

    Red Desert. 1949. 60 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Lippert. Don Barry, Jack Holt, Margia Dean.

    Wagons West. 1952. 70 minutos. Cinecolor. Monogram. Rod Cameron, Peggie Castle.

(1415-1975)

   Portugal was the first Western European state to establish an early modern overseas empire beyond the Mediterranean and perhaps the last colonial power to decolonize. A vast subject of complexity that is full of myth as well as debatable theories, the history of the Portuguese overseas empire involves the story of more than one empire, the question of imperial motives, the nature of Portuguese rule, and the results and consequences of empire, including the impact on subject peoples as well as on the mother country and its society, Here, only the briefest account of a few such issues can be attempted.

   There were various empires or phases of empire after the capture of the Moroccan city of Ceuta in 1415. There were at least three Portuguese empires in history: the First empire (1415-1580), the Second empire (1580-1640 and 1640-1822), and the Third empire (1822-1975).

   With regard to the second empire, the so-called Phillipine period (1580-1640), when Portugal's empire was under Spanish domination, could almost be counted as a separate era. During that period, Portugal lost important parts of its Asian holdings to England and also sections of its colonies of Brazil, Angola, and West Africa to Holland's conquests. These various empires could be characterized by the geography of where Lisbon invested its greatest efforts and resources to develop territories and ward off enemies.

   The first empire (1415-1580) had two phases. First came the African coastal phase (1415-97), when the Portuguese sought a foothold in various Moroccan cities but then explored the African coast from Morocco to past the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa. While colonization and sugar farming were pursued in the Atlantic islands, as well as in the islands in the Gulf of Guinea like São Tomé and Príncipe, for the most part the Portuguese strategy was to avoid commitments to defending or peopling lands on the African continent. Rather, Lisbon sought a seaborne trade empire, in which the Portuguese could profit from exploiting trade and resources (such as gold) along the coasts and continue exploring southward to seek a sea route to Portuguese India. The second phase of the first empire (1498-1580) began with the discovery of the sea route to Asia, thanks to Vasco da Gama's first voyage in 1497-99, and the capture of strong points, ports, and trading posts in order to enforce a trade monopoly between Asia and Europe. This Asian phase produced the greatest revenues of empire Portugal had garnered, yet ended when Spain conquered Portugal and commanded her empire as of 1580.

   Portugal's second overseas empire began with Spanish domination and ran to 1822, when Brazil won her independence from Portugal. This phase was characterized largely by Brazilian dominance of imperial commitment, wealth in minerals and other raw materials from Brazil, and the loss of a significant portion of her African and Asian coastal empire to Holland and Great Britain. A sketch of Portugal's imperial losses either to native rebellions or to imperial rivals like Britain and Holland follows:

   • Morocco (North Africa) (sample only)

   Arzila—Taken in 1471; evacuated in 1550s; lost to Spain in 1580, which returned city to a sultan.

   Ceuta—Taken in 1415; lost to Spain in 1640 (loss confirmed in 1668 treaty with Spain).

   • Tangiers—Taken in 15th century; handed over to England in 1661 as part of Catherine of Braganza's dowry to King Charles II.

   • West Africa

   • Fort/Castle of São Jorge da Mina, Gold Coast (in what is now Ghana)—Taken in 1480s; lost to Holland in 1630s.

   • Middle East

   Socotra-isle—Conquered in 1507; fort abandoned in 1511; used as water resupply stop for India fleet.

   Muscat—Conquered in 1501; lost to Persians in 1650.

   Ormuz—Taken, 1505-15 under Albuquerque; lost to England, which gave it to Persia in the 17th century.

   Aden (entry to Red Sea) — Unsuccessfully attacked by Portugal (1513-30); taken by Turks in 1538.

   • India

   • Ceylon (Sri Lanka)—Taken by 1516; lost to Dutch after 1600.

   • Bombay—Taken in 16th century; given to England in 1661 treaty as part of Catherine of Braganza's dowry for Charles II.

   • East Indies

   • Moluccas—Taken by 1520; possession confirmed in 1529 Saragossa treaty with Spain; lost to Dutch after 1600; only East Timor remaining.

   After the restoration of Portuguese independence from Spain in 1640, Portugal proceeded to revive and strengthen the Anglo- Portuguese Alliance, with international aid to fight off further Spanish threats to Portugal and drive the Dutch invaders out of Brazil and Angola. While Portugal lost its foothold in West Africa at Mina to the Dutch, dominion in Angola was consolidated. The most vital part of the imperial economy was a triangular trade: slaves from West Africa and from the coasts of Congo and Angola were shipped to plantations in Brazil; raw materials (sugar, tobacco, gold, diamonds, dyes) were sent to Lisbon; Lisbon shipped Brazil colonists and hardware. Part of Portugal's War of Restoration against Spain (1640-68) and its reclaiming of Brazil and Angola from Dutch intrusions was financed by the New Christians (Jews converted to Christianity after the 1496 Manueline order of expulsion of Jews) who lived in Portugal, Holland and other low countries, France, and Brazil. If the first empire was mainly an African coastal and Asian empire, the second empire was primarily a Brazilian empire.

   Portugal's third overseas empire began upon the traumatic independence of Brazil, the keystone of the Lusitanian enterprise, in 1822. The loss of Brazil greatly weakened Portugal both as a European power and as an imperial state, for the scattered remainder of largely coastal, poor, and uncolonized territories that stretched from the bulge of West Africa to East Timor in the East Indies and Macau in south China were more of a financial liability than an asset. Only two small territories balanced their budgets occasionally or made profits: the cocoa islands of São Tomé and Príncipe in the Gulf of Guinea and tiny Macau, which lost much of its advantage as an entrepot between the West and the East when the British annexed neighboring Hong Kong in 1842. The others were largely burdens on the treasury. The African colonies were strapped by a chronic economic problem: at a time when the slave trade and then slavery were being abolished under pressures from Britain and other Western powers, the economies of Guinea- Bissau, São Tomé/Príncipe, Angola, and Mozambique were totally dependent on revenues from the slave trade and slavery. During the course of the 19th century, Lisbon began a program to reform colonial administration in a newly rejuvenated African empire, where most of the imperial efforts were expended, by means of replacing the slave trade and slavery, with legitimate economic activities.

   Portugal participated in its own early version of the "Scramble" for Africa's interior during 1850-69, but discovered that the costs of imperial expansion were too high to allow effective occupation of the hinterlands. After 1875, Portugal participated in the international "Scramble for Africa" and consolidated its holdings in west and southern Africa, despite the failure of the contra-costa (to the opposite coast) plan, which sought to link up the interiors of Angola and Mozambique with a corridor in central Africa. Portugal's expansion into what is now Malawi, Zambia, and Zimbabwe (eastern section) in 1885-90 was thwarted by its oldest ally, Britain, under pressure from interest groups in South Africa, Scotland, and England. All things considered, Portugal's colonizing resources and energies were overwhelmed by the African empire it possessed after the frontier-marking treaties of 1891-1906. Lisbon could barely administer the massive area of five African colonies, whose total area comprised about 8 percent of the area of the colossal continent. The African territories alone were many times the size of tiny Portugal and, as of 1914, Portugal was the third colonial power in terms of size of area possessed in the world.

   The politics of Portugal's empire were deceptive. Lisbon remained obsessed with the fear that rival colonial powers, especially Germany and Britain, would undermine and then dismantle her African empire. This fear endured well into World War II. In developing and keeping her potentially rich African territories (especially mineral-rich Angola and strategically located Mozambique), however, the race against time was with herself and her subject peoples. Two major problems, both chronic, prevented Portugal from effective colonization (i.e., settling) and development of her African empire: the economic weakness and underdevelopment of the mother country and the fact that the bulk of Portuguese emigration after 1822 went to Brazil, Venezuela, the United States, and France, not to the colonies. These factors made it difficult to consolidate imperial control until it was too late; that is, until local African nationalist movements had organized and taken the field in insurgency wars that began in three of the colonies during the years 1961-64.

   Portugal's belated effort to revitalize control and to develop, in the truest sense of the word, Angola and Mozambique after 1961 had to be set against contemporary events in Europe, Africa, and Asia. While Portugal held on to a backward empire, other European countries like Britain, France, and Belgium were rapidly decolonizing their empires. Portugal's failure or unwillingness to divert the large streams of emigrants to her empire after 1850 remained a constant factor in this question. Prophetic were the words of the 19th-century economist Joaquim Oliveira Martins, who wrote in 1880 that Brazil was a better colony for Portugal than Africa and that the best colony of all would have been Portugal itself. As of the day of the Revolution of 25 April 1974, which sparked the final process of decolonization of the remainder of Portugal's third overseas empire, the results of the colonization program could be seen to be modest compared to the numbers of Portuguese emigrants outside the empire. Moreover, within a year, of some 600,000 Portuguese residing permanently in Angola and Mozambique, all but a few thousand had fled to South Africa or returned to Portugal.

   In 1974 and 1975, most of the Portuguese empire was decolonized or, in the case of East Timor, invaded and annexed by a foreign power before it could consolidate its independence. Only historic Macau, scheduled for transfer to the People's Republic of China in 1999, remained nominally under Portuguese control as a kind of footnote to imperial history. If Portugal now lacked a conventional overseas empire and was occupied with the challenges of integration in the European Union (EU), Lisbon retained another sort of informal dependency that was a new kind of empire: the empire of her scattered overseas Portuguese communities from North America to South America. Their numbers were at least six times greater than that of the last settlers of the third empire.

    See also Luso-Tropicalism; Rose-colored map; Ultimatum, English.